Forandringsledelse og -projekter som organisatorisk læring Johannes Jørgensen http://dk.linkedin.com/in/johjoergensen Ulrik Faltoft http://dk.linkedin.com/in/falktoft

Læringspointer fra sidste lektion: Aktør- netværksteori Hvad kan vi lære om videndeling og læring set fra et aktør-netværksteoretisk perspektiv? Hvordan – om overhovedet – kan ANT kobles til forandringsledelse? Er der andre perspektiver vi har gennemgået på kurset, som I mener indgår I forandringsledelse?

Program 4 typer af forandringer Teoretisk gennemgang Øvelse Gennemgang af den klassiske tilgang til forandringsledelse (Kotter) Kompleksitet og forandring Snowden Stacey Sammenhæng mellem personlighedstype og forandringsstrategi

Dilbert...

...og virkeligheden “Vi har implementeret det her system - det har kostet rigtig mange penge, men der er ikke nogen der bruger det...Hvordan kan vi få dem til at bruge det?”

Lewin´s model for change Psycologist Kurt Lewin developed af model for planned change in 1947. Not just for companies – but for individuals, groups and other organizations The model is about the un-learning and the learning of individuals as a part of the organization Three stages:

Why Change? Change in objectives Strategic move from innovator to mass producer Move from organic to mechanistic structure Purchase of new equipment New technological processes usually lead to changes in power and reporting relationships Mergers or acquisitions Duplicate functions will inevitably be eliminated and new coordinating role will be introduced Sudden internal or external hostility Temporary crises are typically met by management’s central decision making Decline in profits When company profit falls, management frequently resorts to a structural shake-up Personnel are shuffled, departments added/deleted, new authority relationships defined, decision-making patterns significantly altered 7

Nadler & Tushmans Typologi Evolution - Gradvis forandring Revolution - Strategisk forandring Proaktiv Finjustering Reorientering Reaktiv Tilpasning Genskabelse

Eksempel 1: Finjustering En virksomhed introducerer en projektdrejebog, for at sikre at alle projektledere gennemgår samme strukturerede reflektion om deres projekter Evolution - Gradvis forandring Revolution - Strategisk forandring Proaktiv Finjustering Reorientering Reaktiv Tilpasning Genskabelse

Eksempel 2: Tilpasning En virksomhed introducerer en ny stresspolitik efter kontrolbesøg fra Arbejdstilsynet Evolution - Gradvis forandring Revolution - Strategisk forandring Proaktiv Finjustering Reorientering Reaktiv Tilpasning Genskabelse

Eksempel 3: Reorientering En virksomhed introducerer ERP for at eliminere dobbeltarbejde og forbedre koncernrapporteringen Evolution - Gradvis forandring Revolution - Strategisk forandring Proaktiv Finjustering Reorientering Reaktiv Tilpasning Genskabelse

Eksempel 4: Genskabelse Pga svigtende efterspørgsel stopper virksomheden produktionen og fokuserer på after sales / services Evolution - Gradvis forandring Revolution - Strategisk forandring Proaktiv Finjustering Reorientering Reaktiv Tilpasning Genskabelse

Øvelse Hvilke(n) type af læring kan accellerere de fire typer af forandringer? Hvilke(n) type af læring kan udgøre en hindring? Forslag til modeller: SECI (Nonaka et al) I-Space (Boisot) 1/2/3 loop learning (Argyris) DIKW hierarchy (Ackoff)

The Organisation’s Life Cycle Organisational size a Time b 14

Dysfunctional Consequences of Decline Centralisation Participation decreases Control emphasised No long-term planning Crisis drives out strategic planning Scapegoating Leaders blamed for pain and uncertainty Turnover Competent leaders tend to leave first causing leadership anaemia Low morale Few needs are met Infighting is rampant Loss of slack Uncommitted resources are used to cover operating expenses Loss of credibility Leaders lose confidence of subordinates Non-prioritised cuts Conflict Competition for resources 15

Changes faced by Companies

Figure 10.1 Key factors in achieving change

Ranges of Organisational Change Incremental change Radical change Evolution Revolution Maintain equilibrium Seek new equilibrium Change individual parts or departments Transform the entire organisation Optimise existing structure & mgmt Generate new structure & mgmt Improve existing products Introduce path-breaking new products 18

Mintzberg’s Change Cube

Mintzberg’s Map of Change Methods

John Kotter: Kendetegn ved succesfulde forandringer

Krisestemning Krisestemning giver mulighed for at skabe konsensus omkring forandringsbehovet MEN: Krisestemning skaber også frygt og paralyserer kreativiteten En forandringsparat kultur er at foretrække

En stærk koalition... Interessentperspektivet på organisationer er relevant og vigtigt i en hver forandring MEN interessentperspektivet bliver selvforstærkende, hvis forandringsledelsen bliver bygget omkring få “udvalgte” Bred involvering er en bedre vej til forankring

Visionen klart formuleret og formidlet En fælles vision er vigtigt MEN en vision er intet værd, hvis der ikke er ejerskab for den i organisationen! En god start er at involvere i udarbejdelsen af visionen

Forandringskommunikation Kommunikation er nødvendigt for at skabe buy-in MEN Interne PR-kampagner bliver ofte undermineret af den langt mere effektive “Djungletromme” Åben dialog omkring forandringen skaber troværdighed og tillid

Skab handlingsrum Et nøglepunkt er at skabe handlingsrum i organisationen MEN det er ubetinget nemmere, hvis ledelsesstilen generelt understøtter individuel ansvarlighed og selvledelse

Short term wins Det er vigtigt at løbende gøre opmærksom på fremdriften MEN en alt for ensidig kommunikation af fremskridt - på bekostning af seriøs håndtering af de reelle udfordringer, som medarbejderne står overfor - bliver hurtig utroværdig

Hold fast Ledelsen er - rent mentalt - meget længere fremme end medarbejderne, som ofte hører om forandringerne flere måneder eller endda år efter at ledelsen har konceptualiseret disse. Men hvis ledelsen ikke løbende gør opmærksom på forandringen, risikerer man at organisationen falder tilbage MEN netop derfor bør ledelsen involvere tidligt i forløbet, og sikre at ejerskabet for forandringen ikke blive hængende på direktionsgangen

Øvelse Fra et videns/læringsperspektiv: Reflekter over følgende værktøjer, som er at finde i mange forandringsprojekter inspireret af Kotter Forandringsvision - video med direktøren Nyhedsbrev - information til medarbejdere om forandringsprojektet, herunder milepæle og fremdrift FAQ - ofte stillede spørgsmål og svar herpå E-learning Klasserumsundervisning

Øvelse Reflekter over forholdet mellem individuel og organisatorisk læring i forbindelse med organisatoriske forandringer Hvad er jeres vigtigste tommelfingerregler for forandringsledere? Forslag til teori Cook, Scott D. N & Yanow, Dvora

7-S Framework Better known as McKinsey 7-S, as the authors Tom Peters and Robert Waterman, have been consultants at McKinsey & Co (1981/82) A key point is, that organizations are not just about structures. There is several (according to these two: six) other aspects of organization

7-S Framework

The hard S’s Strategy - Actions a company plans in response to or anticipation of changes in its external environment. Structure - Basis for specialization and co- ordination influenced primarily by strategy and by organization size and diversity. Systems - Formal and informal procedures that support the strategy and structure. (Systems are more powerful than they are given credit)

Table 10.1 The 7S strategic framework and its application to e-business management

The soft S’s Style / Culture Staff Skills Shared Values / Superordinate Goals

Table 10.1 The 7S strategic framework and its application to e-business management (Continued)

Staff The people/human resource management Processes used to develop managers Socialization processes Ways of shaping basic values of management cadre Ways of introducing young recruits to the company Ways of helping to manage the careers of employees

Style /Culture The culture of the organization, consisting of two components: Organizational Culture: the dominant values and beliefs, and norms, which develop over time and become relatively enduring features of organizational life. (Management) Style: more a matter of what managers do than what they say; How do a company’s managers spend their time? What are they focusing attention on? Symbolism – the creation and maintenance (or sometimes deconstruction) of meaning is a fundamental responsibility of managers.

Skills The distinctive competences What the company does best Ways of expanding or shifting competences

Shared Values / Superordinate Goals Guiding concepts Fundamental ideas around which a business is built – must be simple, usually stated at abstract level Have great meaning inside the organization even though outsiders may not see or understand them.

Source: The middle column is based on a summary of the commentary in Hayes (2002)

Change in ANT (Callon 1986)

Tactics for Dealing with Resistance to Change Education and communication Help employees see the logic of the changes Participation Involve employees in change decisions Facilitation and support Paid leave of absence, new skills training Try to minimise the anxiety levels of the staff Negotiation Offer reward packages even during downturns Manipulation and co-optation Twisting and distorting facts to make them appear more attractive, withholding undesirable information, rumour mill Coercion Application of direct threats to the resistors, e.g. loss of promotion Realigning staff profiles Dismissal of trouble makers or introduction of change managers 43

Discuss… How does Lewin perceive change? How does Kotter perceive change? How does 7’s perceive change? How does Hayes (transition model) perceive change? How does ANT perceive change? How do you perceive change? How is change linked to the leadership/management models we discussed?

Key change management issues Schedule – what are the suitable stages for introducing change? Budget – how do we cost e-business? Resources needed – what type of resources do we need, what are their responsibilities and where do we obtain them? Organizational structures – do we need to revise organizational structure? Managing the human impact of change – what is the best way to introduce large-scale e-business change to employees? Technologies to support e-business change – the role of knowledge management, groupware and intranets are explored Risk management approaches to e-business led change

Leadership and Management Subject Management Change Essence Stability Leading people Focus Managing work Followers Have Subordinates Long-term Horizon Short-term Vision Seeks Objectives Sets direction Approach  Plans detail Facilitates Decision Makes Personal charisma Power Formal authority Heart Appeal to Head Passion Energy Control Shapes Culture Enacts Proactive Dynamic Reactive Sell Persuasion Tell Transformational Style Transactional Excitement for work Exchange Money for work Striving Likes Action Achievement Wants Results Takes Risk Minimizes Breaks Rules Uses Conflict Avoids New roads Direction Existing roads Truth Establishes What is right Concern Being right Gives Credit Blame Blames

Competing Values (Quinn et al.)

Competing Values - Roles

Task vs. Relationship Philosophies Blake, Mouton, Blake and McCanse CONCERN FOR PRODUCTION CONCERN FOR PEOPLE Country Club Management Team Management Thoughtful attention to the needs of people for satisfying relationships, friendly atmosphere Middle of the Road Management Impoverished Management Authority Compliance Work accomplishment is from committed people, interdependence through a common stake in organization purpose leads to trust and respect Adequate organization performance is possible through balancing the necessity to get out the work with maintaining morale of people at a satisfactory level Exertion of minimum effort to get required work done is appropriate to sustain organization membership. Efficiency in operations results from arranging conditions of work in such a way that human elements interfere to a minimum degree.

MIT DL Framework

Change-signature The individuals characteristic way to create changes The individuals change-signature draws upon values, experience, ways of acting and personality It is this uniq combination, that the individual uses to create trust, respect and autencity in his/her work What have we used in order to convey your individual change-signatures?

Visioning To create a convincing picture of the future, that we will pursue In other words – a good vivid strategy plan with a good vision that stakeholders will buy into Does it sound like somethin familiar?

Relating To develop key-relations in and between organizations To adress HOW we will work and consistently do so. What have you done in your groups?

Inventing To design new ways of cooperation, in order to realize the vision Have you tried out other ways of coordinating, collaborating, cocreating in this course – or is it business as usual?

Sensemaking To make sense of the world that surrounds us – by actively creating comprehension of the context we are working in

Strategic change (Stacey 1995) There are two well-established perspectives from which this strategy process challenge is most frequently viewed: The first is a strategic choice - a transformational process in which organizations adapt to environmental changes by restructuring themselves in an intentional, rational manner The second is that of ecology-an evolutionary process of competitive selection in which whole populations of organizations adapt to environmental change, given that individual organizational adaptation is blocked by institutional inertia and resource specificity

Strategy Safary, The Learning School Mintzberg et al. Group 5

Introduction: “Strategic management becomes "no longer just the management of change but management by change“ (Lapierre in Mintzberg) Only 10% of formulated strategies actually get implemented (Kiechel in Mintzberg)

Why does it fail? Too many bees and too few flies! Too much focus on finding “smart” strategies and not effective ones? Trying to control something too chaotic?

Collaboration between different levels: Not only top and middle managers should work the strategy up, line managers and employees as well There has to be a direct communication between all the organization levels Feedback Google´s way of working: Every single employee is given the chance to create strategies. Top man. Middle man. Line man. & employees Google´s way of working is creative, so the best way to be like this is to encorage all employees to propose new ideas, which can be directly communicated to top management. There are no “steps” in the company. Freedom to employees to set ideas and develop new products. They are given resources and rewarding for sucesfull ideas. All this depends on the initiative skills of people and is completed with the seniors management´s choice, based on experience. Strategic Venturing: Routines are not good for a creative company. The aim is to avoid them. Management can influence the process by controlling and changing routines. There is no hierarchy at all in Google.

Learning Strategy: Strategy is a non-linear process Incorporating “lessons learned” in to future plan on all levels and result in common learning No “hidden strategists”

Key strategic issues: -Circle: factors that can create strategic issues Key strategic issues can come under the direct control of individual proffesionals (central managers or other proffesionals) or from the participation of a variety of people in a complex interactive process Decisions made by Proffesional judgement are specific decisions with a basic mission Decisions made by Collective Choice involve managers and proffesionals from a variety of levels and units. (for instace, activities or hiring affairs) - Decisions made by Administrative Fiat are financial decisions, procedures or role assignments

Base model of strategy formation: 1. Let the strategy emerge (it cannot be forced) 2. Anywhere and anyone 3. Strategies become organizational when they become collective 4. Proliferation not necessarily managed 5. New strategies tend to pervade the organization during period of change

Learning from Diversifying: Develop small business that are closely tied to the traditional ones Relate similarities between traditional and new business Experiment in order to learn Accurate knowledge comes up with experience

Formulation and Implementation into one: Behaviour Knowledge base Change in org Learning by doing Novel Strategy Management Employees Recomended way of creating strategies Not just one strategist!

Premises of the Learning School: Learning proceeds emerging through behaviour and sense is made from action Leadership becomes managing the process of strategic learning as a base for novel strategies Strategies start as patterns of the past – then plans for the future (guidance).

New directions for Strategic learning: Non verbal implicit sharing of tacit knowledge Tacit to explicit knowledge through metaphors and analysis Explicit knowledge back to tacit learning, “Learning by doing” Transfer of codified knowledge Four models of knowledge conversion (Nonaka and Takeuchi) Dynamic interaction process

Critique of The Learning School: Can lead to having no strategy Planning ahead is difficult Not good in crisis (chaos theory) and not good in stable environments Many small sensible steps does not necessarily lead to one good strategy

The basis of the learning school is the continuous experimentation. Conclusion: The essence of strategy lies in developing the organizational capability to acquire ,create, accumulate and exploit knowledge. The learning school should be about learning as a discipline for elaborating a valued sense of direction and about changing that sense of direction, when necessary. The basis of the learning school is the continuous experimentation. Learning is expensive and takes time, so people have to learn, but they also have to get on their regular work efficiently.

Strategic change 2 (Stacey 1995) But - In order to produce creative, innovative, continually changeable behavior, systems must operate far from equilibrium where they are driven by negative and positive feedback to paradoxical states of stability and instability, predictability and unpredictability. The transformational process is one of internal, spontaneous self-organization amongst the agents of a system, provoked by instabilities, and potentially leading to emergent order.

Strategic change 3 (Stacey 1995)

Strategic change 4 (Stacey 1995) Bounded Rationality (Herbert Simon 1957) – rational decisions are made within the scope of the organization / business Bounded Ambiguity (Engeström) – allowing several viewpoints, within the nearest zone of perceived significant scopes – expansive learning Bounded Instability – accepting that all things stable may be up for change or instability/chaos

Cynefin (Kurtz&Snowden 2003)

Complexity Matrix (Stacey 2007)

Nine principles for handling Complexity

Moving from Agreement & Certainty Decision making model Moving from Agreement & Certainty Modified from Ralph D. Stacey: "Complexity and Creativity in Organizations"

CAS Management of Bureacracies  relationship building – work with patterns of interaction  loose coupling – informal communities of practice  complicating – add more degrees of freedom  diversifying – draw out & exploit difference  sense making – collective interpretation/meaning  learning – act/learn/plan at the same time  improvising – intuition guiding action w/min specs  thinking about the future – imagine surprises  noticing emergent direction – build on what works Adapted from Ruth Anderson & Reuben McDaniel, JR.

Agility and Self-Organisation “The relay race approach to product development may conflict with the goals of maximum speed and flexibility. Instead a holistic or rugby approach where a team tries to go the distance as a unit, passing the ball back and forth may better serve todays competitive requirements.” Hirotaka Takeuchi and Ikujiro Nonaka, “The New New Product Development Game”, Harvard Business Review, January 1986.

Self-Organisation Learning how to “flow” with & “tune to” change in complex systems W. Edwards Deming suggested that everyone -- from the CEO to the front line worker -- has influence over 15% of their system. The other 85% is beyond their discretionary control.  Recognize that you have 15% discretionary influence… it may sound small but you can use it to make a difference that makes a difference.

Complex Adaptive Systems “CASs consist of a network of agents that interact with each other according to a set of rules that require them to examine and respond to each other’s behavior to improve their behavior and thus the behavior of the system they comprise”. – Ralph Stacey A collection of individual agents, who have the freedom to act in unpredictable ways, and whose actions are interconnected such that one agents actions changes the context for other agents – as termite colonies, stock markets, groups of people…

Learning Organization Philosophy Peter Senge in the “Fifth Discipline,” combines values-based, teamwork, and information driven approaches that asserts that in order for organizations to survive they must become “learning” entities characterized by five disciplines: Systems thinking- interconnectedness of the organization Personal mastery – individual mastery achieved through self-actualization. Mental models – assumptions of the world that influence decision-making Build shared vision – a collective vision of the future Team learning – Using dialogue to create synergistic teams. Gifford and Pinchot – adds the dimension that organizations must engage the intelligence, judgment, etc. of everyone in the organization to be responsive to customers.

Learning Organization Philosophy

Helix - Co-creating innovation through partnering Læringstyper Transformativ læring Akkomodativ læring Assimilativ læring Kumulativ læring Helix - Co-creating innovation through partnering 83 83

Helix - Co-creating innovation through partnering Kumulativ Karakteristika Eksempler Præget af rigiditet – meget ufleksibel form for viden Læring er ikke koblet til tidligere erfaringer læring kan kun ”aktiveres” i situationer, der svarer til læringssituationen. Grundlæggelse af mentale skemaer, som afsæt for senere læring Når vi ”terper” eller lærer udenad: f.eks. vores pinkode, alfabetsangen, Helix - Co-creating innovation through partnering 84 84

Helix - Co-creating innovation through partnering Assimilativ Karakteristika Eksempler Der tilføjes viden til de eksisterende skemaer/forståelser Uddybning og differentiering af det eksisterende. Læringsproduktet: opbygges, integreres og stabiliseres Lavt ”mental energiforbrug” ”Alle dyr med fire ben og en hale er en hund…” ”Nå, det er ligesom”… Styrkes gennem fagdelt undervisning. Helix - Co-creating innovation through partnering 85 85

Helix - Co-creating innovation through partnering Akkomodativ karakteristika Eksempler Overskridende læring Hel eller delvis omstrukturering af mentale skemaer – så læringen bliver individuel Kvalitativ overskridelse og udvidelse af det allerede udviklede beredskab Kræver megen ”mental energi”, derfor: Større bevidsthed omkring motivation og samspil (provokation/frustration/ modstand) Nå… sådan kan man også gøre! En forståelses- og tolkningsorienteret viden Erkendelse af nye tænkemåder/struktureringsmåder/handl emåder… At knække koden i forhold til at kunne cykle… Helix - Co-creating innovation through partnering 86 86

Helix - Co-creating innovation through partnering Transformativ karakteristika Eksempler Når et større antal skemaer samtidigt og gennemgribende omstruktureres En egentlig ændring i selvets organisering – og selvforståelse Typisk noget mennesker oplever i forbindelse med egentlige kriser: sygdom, skilsmisse – men også gennem intensive uddannelsesforløb. En fuldstændig anden måde at se, føle og være i verden på! Helix - Co-creating innovation through partnering 87 87

Transformativ Læring “…”becoming critically aware of one's own tacit assumptions and expectations and those of others and assessing their relevance for making an interpretation” (Mizerow 1990) At være (selv)kritisk bevidst om grundlæggende antagelser Være I stand til at udfordre egne antagelser og forståelser af fænomener Være I stand til at ændre adfærd pba. ændret opfattelse (jvf. Astin 1985 om konstruktivisme) Kan medføre at individets læringsskema ændres til at håndtere nye måder at håndtere ny viden på Helix - Co-creating innovation through partnering 88 88

Transformativ Læring 2 . Ny meningsskabelse I forhold til læring Kritisk og refleksiv tilgang til viden og selvudvikling En rekonceptualisering En kritisk dialektik mellem lærer og lærende Øge deltagelse gennem inddragelse af den lærende Ikke I sig selv transformation – men åbner for for at den lærende tager selvansvar – gennem (selv) tillidsopbygning og selvindsigt En rekursiv tilgang hvor de tidligere tillærte sættes sammen i et kritisk perspektiv . Helix - Co-creating innovation through partnering 89 89

Learning in Cynefin

A’ A I-Space (Boisot 1995) Codification DIFFUSED Codification Insight is given structure and coherence Abstraction Codified insights are generalised to a wide range of situations Diffusion The insights are shared with a target population in a codified and abstract form  A’ UNDIFFUSED CODIFIED UNCODIFIED A ABSTRACT  CONCRETE

Order, Complexity and Chaos in SLC CODIFIED Order Diversity Reducing Phase Diversity Increasing Phase Complexity Chaos 1 UNCODIFIED DIFFUSED ABSTRACT CONCRETE UNDIFFUSED

A’ A Learning in I-Space Where would you place: Cumulative learning DIFFUSED Where would you place: Cumulative learning Assimilative learning Accomodative learning Transformational learning  A’ UNDIFFUSED CODIFIED UNCODIFIED A ABSTRACT  CONCRETE

Changing nature of IT Electronic accounting machines – ‘50s 02/07/11 Changing nature of IT Electronic accounting machines – ‘50s Data processing departments – ‘60s Information systems – ‘70s IS plus information services – ‘80s Enterprise information portals - ´90s– ‘90s + 94

Role of IT in organisations 02/07/11 Role of IT in organisations A necessary evil – 1950s and ‘60s general purpose support (’60s and ’70s) support customized management control (‘70s and ‘80s) a strategic resource (85 – now) 95

BPR as Change Table 10.2 Alternative terms for using IS to enhance company performance

Table 10.2 Alternative terms for using IS to enhance company performance

Business Process Re-Modelling as change Hammer and Champy (1993) defined BPR as the fundamental rethinking and radical redesign of business processes to achieve dramatic improvements in critical, contemporary measures of performance, such as cost, quality, service, and speed Fundamental rethinking – re-engineering usually refers to changing of significant business processes such as customer service, sales order processing or manufacturing radical redesign – re-engineering is not involved with minor, incremental change or automation of existing ways of working. It involves a complete rethinking about the way business processes operate

Business Process Re-Modelling as change 2 dramatic improvements – the aim of BPR is to achieve improvements measured in tens or hundreds of per cent. With automation of existing processes only single figure improvements may be possible critical contemporary measures of performance – this point refers to the importance of measuring how well the processes operate in terms of the four important measures of cost, quality, service and speed

Scrum Scrum is an agile process that allows us to focus on delivering high business value in short time. It allows rapidly and repeatedly inspect actual working products (every two weeks to one month). The business sets the priorities - Teams self-organize to determine the best way to deliver the highest priority features. Has been initially been used for software development – but now we see Scrum moving into all develop-oriented business areas

The End.. Tak for denne gang! Ulrik Falktoft Mail: uvf @itu.dk