Psykologiens Historie og Genstandsområde 2008 Forelæsning 8

Charles Darwin

Francis Galton

William James

William James 1842-1910 Henry James

Emanuel Swedenborg William James 1842-1910

William James 1842-1910

I suffer not only from ”insomnia, digestive disorders, eye troubles, weakness of the back and sometimes deep depression of spirits”, but ocassionally from ”a horrible fear of my own existence.”

Jubii, evolution og darwinisme i praksis! Med Louis Aggasiz til Brasilien.

James med Louis Aggasiz til Brasilien. Det er døden! James med Louis Aggasiz til Brasilien.

James besøger fysiologerne og psykologerne i Tyskland.

James begynder at undervise i den nye psykologi på Harvard. James skriver kontrakt om lærebog.

Efter megen pres fra forlæggeren ud-kommer bogen i 1890 - 12 år senere.

Den forkortede udgave udkommer i 1892, og herefter gider James ikke længere være psykolog.

I hate psychology that nasty little science!

”The thought of psycho-physical and altogether of brass-instrumental and algebraic-formula psychology fills me with horror!” ”This method taxes patience to the utmost, and hardly could have arisen in a country whose natives could be bored.” W. James: Principles of Psychology 1890/1950 p. 192-193.

”Such Germans as Weber, Fechner…and Wundt …” ” …obviously cannot.”

The Metaphysical Club, Harvard University 1878 Charles Sanders Peirce 1839-1914 I am impressed! In my article, How to make our Ideas clear, in 1878, I said: ”Consider what effect, which might conceivably have practical bearing, we conceive the object of our conception to have. Then our conception of those effects is the whole of our conceptions of the object.” James ville i stedet være filosof.

Now listen to me everybody! Sigh!

FUNKTION ”’The true’, to put it very briefly, is only the expedient in the way of our behaving, just as ’the right’ is only the expedient in the way of our behaving.”

FUNKTION ”It is very generally admitted…that consciousness grows the more complex and intense the higher we rise in the animal kingdom. That of a man must exceed that of an oyster. From this point of view it seems an organ, superadded to the other organs which maintain the animal in the struggle for existence; and the presumption…is that it helps him in some way in the struggle, just as they do.”

Objekt som information. FUNKTION ”The pursuance of future ends and the choice of means for their attainment are thus the mark and criterion of the presence of mentality in a phenomenon.” Konsumtion 4 Håndtering 3 Sporing 2 1 Søgen Objekt som information. Objekt som GENSTAND. Objekt som værdi. Objekt som intention.

”The kind of psychology which could cure a case of melancholy, or charm a chronic insane delusion away, ought certainly to be preferred to the most seraphic insight into the nature of the soul.” Det lyder fornuftigt!

Tag en tysker, du, det er godt råd! Jo, men så skal jeg finde en nørd, jeg kan lokke til at overtage mit professorat i psykologi ved Harvard. Tag en tysker, du, det er godt råd!

Hugo Münsterberg 1863-1916 Det lykkedes.

I have “twenty-seven rooms overspun with electric wires and filled with chronoscopes and kymographs and tachistoscopes and ergographs and a mechanic busy at his work.”

Men så blev også Münsterberg grebet af amerikansk pragmatisme. ”Det er mere naturligt at drikke vandet end at analysere dets elementer i laboratoriet.” Selvfølgelig er det det!

Class room Münsterberg opfinder kriminalpsykologi Münsterberg opfinder pædagogisk psykologi Class room Münsterberg opfinder terapeutisk psykologi Münsterberg opfinder arbejdspsykologi Münsterberg opfinder organisationspsykologi Münsterberg opfinder jobpsykologi

(Herom se Powerpointpræsentationen General psychology 10) Piet Hein ”Psychologists in the sweat of their brows study what everyone knows.” Hugo Münsterberg opfinder herefter i Amerika helt alene DEN ANVENDTE PSYKOLOGI. Og får en sørgelig skæbne. (Herom se Powerpointpræsentationen General psychology 10)

Drinking? Fornicating? Not paying rent? What’s the matter, son? William James’ hus i Harvard UHUU, UHUU, UHUU, UHUU. JAMES Drinking? Fornicating? Not paying rent? What’s the matter, son? My landlady is going to throw me out from my room.

Yes, well, Edward. Are you a country boy, Edward? William James’ hus i Harvard Yes, well, Edward. Are you a country boy, Edward? But why do you want to keep chicken in your lodgings, son? Edward, sir. JAMES I see. She says I can’t keep chicken in my room! It is nothing like that, sir. I need the chicken for my learning experiments.

Gee thanks, professor James! William James’ hus i Harvard Gee thanks, professor James! I shall, professor James! Yes, well, just be sure to remember what I have taught, Edward. JAMES Learning experiments? Yes, I want to become a psychologist like you, professor James. Look here, Edward, if everything else fails…. I see. ….you can run your chicken in the basement of my house. That should please my children!

Edward Lee Thorndike 1874-1949

Thorndike

Thorndike TRIAL AND ERROR

Edward Lee Thorndike 1874-1949

William James Habit eller Vane. ØVELSESLOVEN LAW OF EXERCISE ”Any response to a situation will, other things being equal, be more strongly connected with that situation and to the average vigor and duration of the connections.” Edward Lee Thorndike 1874-1949 William James Habit eller Vane.

William James selektion af det funktionelle EFFEKTLOVEN LAW OF EFFECT Of several responses made to the same situation, those which are accompanied or closely followed by satisfaction to the animal will, other things being equal, be more firmly connected with the situation, so that when it recurs, they will be more likely to recur; [fortsættes] Edward Lee Thorndike 1874-1949 Those which are accompanied or closely followed with discomfort to the animal will, other things being equal, have their connections with that situation weakened, so that, when it recurs, they will be less likely to recur.” William James selektion af det funktionelle

William James selektion af det funktionelle Edward Lee Thorndike 1874-1949 ”Pleasure stamps in, pain stamps out!” William James selektion af det funktionelle

1929 Edward Lee Thorndike 1874-1949 ”I was wrong!”

Ivan Petrovich Pavlov 1849 – 1936 ”I learned that somewhat similar experiments on animals had been performed in America, and indeed not by physiologists but by psychologists…and now I must acknowledge that the honour of having made the first steps along this path belongs to E.L. Thorndike. By two or three years his experiments proceeded ours.” Edward Lee Thorndike 1874-1949 Ivan Petrovich Pavlov 1849 – 1936 Nobelprisen 1904

Naturlig refleks Stimulus 1. Respons 2.

Naturlig refleks HVAD LAVER DU???

Naturlig refleks Aha!

Naturlig stimulus Naturlig respons

Sagen uvedkommende stimulus

Naturlig stimulus Naturlig respons

KLASSISK BETINGNING Betinget respons Betinget stimulus Signalindlæring

KLASSISK BETINGNING

DING-DING-DING-DING-DING-DING G.T. Fechner Elemente der Psycho-physik 1860

G.T. Fechner Elemente der Psycho-physik 1860 DING-DING-DING-DING-DING-DING

G.T. Fechner Elemente der Psycho-physik 1860

Reinforcering Forstærkning Ekstinktion Udslukning KLASSISK BETINGNING Reinforcering Forstærkning Ekstinktion Udslukning Spontan genopdukken Inhibition og disinhibition Sensorisk generalisering Sensorisk diskrimination Eksperimentel neurose

ER IKKE ENS! Thorndike Pavlov Skal erstatte en stimulus med en anden STIMULUS SUBSTITITION Skal undslippe indespærring v. AKTIV HANDLING

Instrumentel betinging Thorndike Pavlov Klassisk betinging Instrumentel betinging RESPONDENT OPERANT Skal erstatte en stimulus med en anden STIMULUS SUBSTITITION Skal undslippe indespærring v. AKTIV HANDLING Skinner

Instrumentel betinging Modtage Serve Thorndike Pavlov Klassisk betinging Instrumentel betinging RESPONDENT OPERANT Skal erstatte en stimulus med en anden STIMULUS SUBSTITITION Skal undslippe indespærring v. AKTIV HANDLING Skinner

Objekt som information. Serve Modtage H.S. Jennings J. Loeb Konsumtion 4 Håndtering 3 Sporing 2 1 Søgen Objekt som information. Objekt som GENSTAND. Objekt som værdi. Objekt som intention.

Uddannet i Tyskland som forstmand med en særlig interesse for plantefysiologi. Begyndte studier af primitive dyrs bevægelser i Würzburg på en Romanes-agtig måde. Efter sit møde med Ernst Machs Analysis of Sensation (:science is ”consisting of the completest possible presentment of facts with the least expenditure of thought.”) bliver det Loebs mål at finde det simpleste princip for at kontrollere adfærd. Jacques Loeb 1859-1924

Solens stråler påvirker cellernes kemiske processer, således

at plantevævsaktiviteten er kraftigst, hvor lyspåvirkningen er kraftigst, hvilket betyder

at planten ’strækker sig’ mod sollyset.

Denne fysio-kemiske bevægemåde kaldes en TROPISME. I dette tilfælde en HELIOTROPISME.

Tropismer navngives efter den stimulus, der afstedkommer reaktionen, og deles i positive og negative

Loeb mente, at den samme fysisk-kemiske tropisme-mekanisme kunne forklare dyrenes bevægelsemåde. Med disse dyr gik det vel meget godt: Jacques Loeb

Men hvad med dem her. Og det var dem, slaget stod om. Jacques Loeb Det vil sige, TAXIS

Aristotle Jacques Loeb Loeb mente imidlertid, at tropismen kunne forklare al adfærd. ”The tropism theory might include human conduct also.” (1919) Dette kan kaldes ’The Mechanistic Conception of Life’ – titlen på Loebs bog fra 1912 – bemærk årstallet. Aristotle Y Alt levende: Indtage næring, vokse og formere sig. Y Dyr: Stedbevægelse og perception. Y Højere dyr: Fore- stillingsbilleder, drømme, erindring og fantasi. Y Mennesker: Fornuft, sprog og evnen til at leve i samfund. Jacques Loeb Alle levende væsener skal grundlæggende forstås som PLANTER

Loeb mente imidlertid, at tropismen kunne forklare al adfærd. ”The tropism theory might include human conduct also.” (1919) Dette kan kaldes ’The Mechanistic Conception of Life’ – titlen på Loebs bog fra 1912 – bemærk årstallet. hyldest til Loeb som ”prophet of the new movement”: ”Starting in 1888, he set his face against anthropomorphism and teleology and began the attempt to describe all behavior in physical and chemical terms.” (Fraenkell & Gunn, 1961, p. 6) Jacques Loeb Loeb kom til University of Chicago i 1891, hvor han bl.a. fik Dewey og Mead som kolleger.

Herbert Spencer Jennings 1868-1947 Jennings var søn af en Darwin-entusiastisk farmer-doctor og begyndte at studere hvirvelløse dyrs fysiologi og adfærd, først på Harvard (hvor hans lærer var Loeb-fan), senere i Chicago, hvor Dewey gjorde stort indtryk på ham. Sit post-doctorale arbejde udførte han i Jena i Tyskland under datidens berømte ekspert i primitive dyr, Verworn. Herbert Spencer Jennings 1868-1947 Vi skal bemærke ham for to vigtige ting: 1. Identifikationen af det psykiske i selve adfærden. 2. Afvisningen af, at adfærd kan reduceres til stimulus-response alene.

Jennings’ interesse var at finde det elementære livsgrundlag for det psykiske. ”the psychological processes in the realm of the protista are the bridge which connects the chemical processes of inorganic nature with the mental life of the highest animals… the development of the human psyche begins with those very psychological processes found in the protista, since the human egg has essentially the same status as a single cellular organism.”

Objekt som information. Behavior of the Lower Organisms 1906: Konsumtion 4 Håndtering 3 Sporing 2 1 Søgen Objekt som information. Objekt som GENSTAND. Objekt som værdi. Objekt som intention.

Objekt som information. Behavior of the Lower Organism 1906: ”The writer is thoroughly convinced, after long study of the behavior of this organism, that if Amoeba were a large animal, so as to come within the everyday experience of human beings, its behavior would at once call forth the attribution to it of states of pleasure and pain, of hunger, desire, and the like, on precisely the same basis as we attribute these things to the dog.” Konsumtion 4 Håndtering 3 Sporing 2 1 Søgen Objekt som information. Objekt som GENSTAND. Objekt som værdi. Objekt som intention. ”In conducting objective investigations we train ourselves to suppress this impression, but thorough investigation tend to restore it stronger than at first.”

Objekt som information. The behavior of the lower organisms, 1906: "A first and essential point for the understanding of behavior is that activity occurs in organisms without present external stimulation. The normal condition of the Paramecium is an active one, with its cilia in rapid movement; it is only under special conditions that it can be brought partly to rest... The organism is activity, and its activities may be spontaneous, so far as the present stimuli are concerned." Konsumtion 4 Håndtering 3 Sporing 2 1 Søgen Objekt som information. Objekt som GENSTAND. Objekt som værdi. Objekt som intention.

* brev til T.H. Morgan, genetikeren der opfandt brugen af bananfluer. ”…the truth of matter is I have never been able to read Jennings through; his whole criticism of the tropism theory seemed so strange to me that I always lost patience whenever I began to read, and turned the pages aside; and when finally Mast began to write I stopped reading them altogether.” * * brev til T.H. Morgan, genetikeren der opfandt brugen af bananfluer.

Nå, ja. Skidt med Jennings. I praksis var det jo nok mig, der vandt. Det var mig, der fik John!!!

White trash sydstatsfamilie. Moderen stærkt religiøs, faderen voldsmand, drikkebror, skørtejæger og døgenigt. Juvenile delinquent – drikkeri, racistiske slagsmål – skyderi. Mønsterbryder og snyder til sig college. I 1915 – 37 år gammel bliver Watson valgt til præsident for the American Psychological Association. I was ”lazy, insurbordinate, vicious and violent. A poor student, constantly in trouble with both school and civic autorities.” John B. Watson 1878-1958

Ham forstod jeg ikke et kuk af! Hans collegelærer koster ham et ekstra år og skaffer ham ind på University of Chicago, hvor han får John Dewey som lærer. Men også Jacques Loeb. Afhandling 1903: Animal Education. The Psychical Development of the White rat. Dyreeksperimenter med aber, høns, hunde katte, frøer, fisk og terner. ”I never wanted to use human subjects… I always was uncomfortable and acted unnaturally. With animals I was at home.” Ham forstod jeg ikke et kuk af! Han var god. Ham ville jeg lave en Phd hos! John B. Watson 1878-1958

Jeg lavede en mini-kopi af den berømte labyrint i Hampton Court og lod mine rotter lære den.

Det kunne de sagtens. Men hvordan bar de sig ad Det kunne de sagtens. Men hvordan bar de sig ad? Hvilke sanser brugte de?

Jeg brugte extirpationsmetoden, som er en slags udelukkelsesmetode. Først blindede jeg dem. Jeg brugte extirpationsmetoden, som er en slags udelukkelsesmetode. Men de kunne stadig finde vej. Så det var ikke synet, som de brugte.

Så stoppede jeg deres ører til. Men de kunne stadig finde vej, så det var ikke hørelsen, som de brugte.

Så klippede jeg deres knurhår af.

Så klippede jeg deres knurhår af. Men de kunne stadig finde vej, så det var ikke den taktile følesans, som de brugte.

Så skar jeg næsen af dem.

Så skar jeg næsen af dem. Men de kunne stadig finde vej, så det var ikke lugtesansen, som de brugte.

Så klippede jeg benene af dem.

Så klippede jeg benene af dem. NU KUNNE DE IKKE FINDE VEJ! Jeg havde hermed bevist, at rotterne brugte muskelsansen til at finde vej!

Den lærer er ikke til at stole på Den lærer er ikke til at stole på. SELVFØLGELIG skar jeg ikke benene af dem!

Men ellers er det rigtig nok. Click! s - r s - r s - r s - r s - r s - r Kæderefleksteorien Men ellers er det rigtig nok.

I 1913 udgav Watson i Psychological Review sit berømte manifest: ”Psychology as the Behaviorist sees it is a purely objective, experimental branch of natural science. Its theoretical goal is the prediction and control of behavior. Introspection forms no essential part of its methods, nor is the scientific value of its data dependent upon the readiness with which they lend themselves to introspection in terms of consciousness. The behaviorist, in his efforts to get a unitary scheme of animal responses, recognizes no diving line between man and brute.”

I 1919 begyndte Watson at studere spædborn Det er i den forbindelse, at vi skal se Watsons andet berømte forsøg. Forsøget med Lille Albert.

John B. Watson & Rosalie Rayner: Conditioned emotional reactions 1920. Forsøget med Lille Albert.

Albert præsenteres for en rotte 1. akt Albert smiler glad til rotten

Albert præsenteres for en rotte 2. akt Hvorefter der kommer en høj lyd Albert bliver forskrækket og begynder at græde.

Albert præsenteres for en rotte 3. akt Albert bliver forskrækket og begynder at græde.

Albert præsenteres for en kanin 4. akt Albert bliver forskrækket og begynder at græde.

Albert præsenteres for juleskæg 5. akt Albert bliver forskrækket og begynder at græde.

Albert præsenteres for mors pels 6. akt Albert bliver forskrækket og begynder at græde.

Albert præsenteres for en rotte 2. akt Hvorefter der kommer en høj lyd ubetinget stimulus Albert bliver forskrækket og begynder at græde. ubetinget response

Albert præsenteres for en rotte 3. akt betinget stimulus Albert bliver forskrækket og begynder at græde. betinget response

Albert præsenteres for en kanin eller julemandsskæg eller mors pels. 4. akt Albert bliver forskrækket og begynder at græde. Stimulus generalisering

Watson og grædende Albert

Watson and Albert

BELØNNING BELØNNING

BELØNNING STRAF

Albert blev aldrig afbetinget. Det var Peter Men altså ikke Albert

gnæk, gnæk, gnæk ”The Freudians twenty years from now…when they come to analyze Albert’s fear of a seal skin coat…will probably tease from him the recital of a dream which upon their analysis will show that Albert at three years of age attempted to play with the pubic hair of the mother and was scolded violently for it. If the analyst has sufficiently prepared Albert to accept such a dream… as an explanation of this avoiding tendencies, and if the analyst has the authority and personality to put it over, Albert may be fully convinced that the dream was a true revealer of the of the factors which brought about the fear.”

Throughout his marriage Watson had affairs with many women, but then he fell hopelessly in love with his research assistent, Rosalie Rayner. Watson allowed his feelings to become known and wrote many passionate letters to Rosalie. His wife, Mary Watson, obtained these letters by feigning illness while visiting Rosalie’s parents, asking for a few minutes to lie down, and using her time alone to search Rosalie’s beedroom. Her mistake was to show the letters to her brother, John, a mercenary character whose reaction was to demand money from watson and from Rosalie’s rich and socially prominent Baltimore family. When they refused, the letters mysteriously fell into the hands of President Goodnow of John Hopkins. Etc., etc., etc.

Et eksempel på Watsons arbejde Watson måtte forlade universitetet og begynde en ny karriere. Et eksempel på Watsons arbejde Eksempelvis: In an advertisement for the Scott Paper Company, Watson featured a photograph of a surgical team at work, with the caption ”And the trouble began with harsh toilet tissue.” Eksempelvis: To increase the sales of Maxwell House Coffee, Watson devised the coffee break, which became a feature of American life. Eksempelvis: In one carefully controlled experiment Watson found that smokers were unable to discriminate one brand of cigarettes from another, so he used slogans like ”I’d walk an extra mile for a Camel!” Eksempelvis: In a Johnson and Johnson Baby Powder campaign aimed at first-time mothers, Watson stressed the purity and cleanliness of the product and the dangers of dirt and disease. Han startede fra bunden i reklamebureauet Walter Thomson, og sluttede som dets vicedirektør. Man kan sige, at han revolutionerede branchen ved at forstå den emotionelle betingnings betydning. ”The consumer is to the manufacturer, the department stores and advertising agencies, what the green frog is to the physiologists.”

…det skal være purposiv behavior! William McDougall 1871-1938 Foreslår en behavioristisk psykologi i 1908. Ja, men ikke noget med kun reflekser og stimulus-respons, det skal være virkelighedstro og common sense…. …det skal være purposiv behavior! ”The healthy animal is up and doing!”

Objekt som information. Konsumtion 4 Håndtering 3 Sporing 2 1 Søgen Objekt som information. Objekt som GENSTAND. Objekt som værdi. Objekt som intention. 1. Purposive behavior is spontaneous. That is, unlike reflexive behavior, it need not be elicited by a known stimulus. 2. In the absence of environmental stimulation, it persists for a relatively long time. 3. It varies. Although the goal of purposive behavior remains constant, the behavior used to attain the goal may vary. If an obstacle is encountered, an alternate route is taken to reach the goal. 4. Purposive behavior terminates when the goal is attained. 5. Purposive behavior becomes more effective with practice. That is, the useless aspects of behavior is gradually eliminated. Trial-and-error is purposive, not reflexive.