Overskrift her Navn på oplægsholder Navn på KU- enhed For at ændre ”Enhedens navn” og ”Sted og dato”: Klik i menulinjen, vælg ”Indsæt” > ”Sidehoved / Sidefod”. Indføj ”Sted og dato” i feltet for dato og ”Enhedens navn” i Sidefod Word Exchange at the Gates of Europe Five Millennia of Language Contact 12 September 2014 Institut for Nordiske Studier og Sprogvidenskab Adam Hyllested

Tekst starter uden punktopstilling For at få punkt- opstilling på teksten, brug forøg indrykning For at få venstre- stillet tekst uden punktopstilling, brug formindsk indrykning Overskrift her For at ændre ”Enhedens navn” og ”Sted og dato”: Klik i menulinjen, vælg ”Indsæt” > ”Sidehoved / Sidefod”. Indføj ”Sted og dato” i feltet for dato og ”Enhedens navn” i Sidefod ”The past is a foreign country; they do things differently there” Leslie P. Hartley, The Go-Between (1953) Dias 2 Word Exchange at the Gates of Europe

Tekst starter uden punktopstilling For at få punkt- opstilling på teksten, brug forøg indrykning For at få venstre- stillet tekst uden punktopstilling, brug formindsk indrykning Overskrift her For at ændre ”Enhedens navn” og ”Sted og dato”: Klik i menulinjen, vælg ”Indsæt” > ”Sidehoved / Sidefod”. Indføj ”Sted og dato” i feltet for dato og ”Enhedens navn” i Sidefod ”Loanword research, alongside historical semantics, connects the history of a language to the ethnocultural reality in which the language users lived. Thus, it can provide valuable connections to other historical disciplines and contribute to the chronologies and localisations of linguistic reconstructions … Sometimes, in fact, loanword research is our only source to information about the undocumented prehistory of ethnic groups …” (Johanna Laakso, 2013) Dias 3 Word Exchange at the Gates of Europe

Tekst starter uden punktopstilling For at få punkt- opstilling på teksten, brug forøg indrykning For at få venstre- stillet tekst uden punktopstilling, brug formindsk indrykning Overskrift her For at ændre ”Enhedens navn” og ”Sted og dato”: Klik i menulinjen, vælg ”Indsæt” > ”Sidehoved / Sidefod”. Indføj ”Sted og dato” i feltet for dato og ”Enhedens navn” i Sidefod Top-level language families of present-day Europe Mm Dias 4 Word Exchange at the Gates of Europe

Tekst starter uden punktopstilling For at få punkt- opstilling på teksten, brug forøg indrykning For at få venstre- stillet tekst uden punktopstilling, brug formindsk indrykning Overskrift her For at ændre ”Enhedens navn” og ”Sted og dato”: Klik i menulinjen, vælg ”Indsæt” > ”Sidehoved / Sidefod”. Indføj ”Sted og dato” i feltet for dato og ”Enhedens navn” i Sidefod The Uralic language family When Dias 5 Word Exchange at the Gates of Europe

Tekst starter uden punktopstilling For at få punkt- opstilling på teksten, brug forøg indrykning For at få venstre- stillet tekst uden punktopstilling, brug formindsk indrykning Overskrift her For at ændre ”Enhedens navn” og ”Sted og dato”: Klik i menulinjen, vælg ”Indsæt” > ”Sidehoved / Sidefod”. Indføj ”Sted og dato” i feltet for dato og ”Enhedens navn” i Sidefod Languages before Indo-European expansions Mmm Dias 6 Word Exchange at the Gates of Europe

Tekst starter uden punktopstilling For at få punkt- opstilling på teksten, brug forøg indrykning For at få venstre- stillet tekst uden punktopstilling, brug formindsk indrykning Overskrift her For at ændre ”Enhedens navn” og ”Sted og dato”: Klik i menulinjen, vælg ”Indsæt” > ”Sidehoved / Sidefod”. Indføj ”Sted og dato” i feltet for dato og ”Enhedens navn” i Sidefod The power of tradition Vilhelm Thomsen was a pioneer who conveyed to Indo-European Studies a range of new subfields loanword studies Pioneering works within loanword studies: ► Den gotiske Sprogklasses indflydelse på den finske (1869) ► Beröringer mellem de finske og de baltiske (litavisk-lettiske) sprog: En sproghistorisk Undersögelse (1890). Linguistic contacts between Uralic and Indo-European and their respective branches is still today an extensively studied and vibrant field. In some respects, though, important evidence is consistently overlooked because of the power of tradition which affects not only how you carry out your research, but also what you search for, where you look for evidence, and from which angle. Dias 7 Word Exchange at the Gates of Europe

Tekst starter uden punktopstilling For at få punkt- opstilling på teksten, brug forøg indrykning For at få venstre- stillet tekst uden punktopstilling, brug formindsk indrykning Overskrift her For at ændre ”Enhedens navn” og ”Sted og dato”: Klik i menulinjen, vælg ”Indsæt” > ”Sidehoved / Sidefod”. Indføj ”Sted og dato” i feltet for dato og ”Enhedens navn” i Sidefod Cases of lexical exchange AD (traditional view) Fenno-Ugric  (NW) Indo-European Balto-Fennic, Saami  (Pre-)Proto-Indo-Iranian Balto-Fennic, Saami  Proto-Baltic Balto-Fennic, Saami  Proto-Germanic Balto-Fennic, Saami  Proto-Slavic Balto-Fennic, Saami  Proto-Scandinavian. Mordvin  Iranian, Baltic Mari  Iranian, Baltic Permian  Iranian Ob-Ugrian  Iranian Hungarian  Medieval Latin, Pannonian Slavic and Alanic (Iassic), Old and Middle High German Samoyedic  Tocharian Dias 8 Word Exchange at the Gates of Europe

Tekst starter uden punktopstilling For at få punkt- opstilling på teksten, brug forøg indrykning For at få venstre- stillet tekst uden punktopstilling, brug formindsk indrykning Overskrift her For at ændre ”Enhedens navn” og ”Sted og dato”: Klik i menulinjen, vælg ”Indsæt” > ”Sidehoved / Sidefod”. Indføj ”Sted og dato” i feltet for dato og ”Enhedens navn” i Sidefod Providers and targets Everywhere Indo-European is automatically assumed to be the provider and Uralic the target language while the assumed share of Uralic loanwords in older Indo-European languages is close to absent. Such an asymmetry is commonly supposed to be typical for a relationship between two peoples where one had the upper hand, technically and politically, at the time of borrowing Dias 9 Word Exchange at the Gates of Europe

Tekst starter uden punktopstilling For at få punkt- opstilling på teksten, brug forøg indrykning For at få venstre- stillet tekst uden punktopstilling, brug formindsk indrykning Overskrift her For at ændre ”Enhedens navn” og ”Sted og dato”: Klik i menulinjen, vælg ”Indsæt” > ”Sidehoved / Sidefod”. Indføj ”Sted og dato” i feltet for dato og ”Enhedens navn” i Sidefod The Fenno-Ugric ice-box Jorma Koivulehto (†23 Aug 2014) said: Proto-Indo-European *H- is preserved in loanwords in Fenno-Ugric as *k- North Saami guovssu < Proto-Saami *kawsoj- ‘dawn’ borrowed from Indo-European *h2aus-, but the laryngeal is gone everywhere in the daughter-languages: Latin aurōra Greek ēós Lithuanian aušra Germanic *austra- (Eng. east, Da. øst) … k- in the Saami term shows that the reconstruction of a laryngeal is correct Dias 10 Word Exchange at the Gates of Europe

Tekst starter uden punktopstilling For at få punkt- opstilling på teksten, brug forøg indrykning For at få venstre- stillet tekst uden punktopstilling, brug formindsk indrykning Overskrift her For at ændre ”Enhedens navn” og ”Sted og dato”: Klik i menulinjen, vælg ”Indsæt” > ”Sidehoved / Sidefod”. Indføj ”Sted og dato” i feltet for dato og ”Enhedens navn” i Sidefod The Fenno-Ugric ice-box (II) Another example is the Indo-European word for ‘white’, *h2al-bho-s (Latin albus; Germanic *albaz ‘limestone plain’) Danish al, older aluær, Swedish alv, alvar, German dialect Alben It occurs in Finnish kalvas and kalpea ‘pale’ < Proto-Fennic *kalβas, *kalpeδa North Saami guolbben ‘chalky layer underneath the top soil’ < Proto-Saami *kalpen There must have been a laryngeal in Indo-European, because Finnish k- cannot come from nothing Dias 11 Word Exchange at the Gates of Europe

Tekst starter uden punktopstilling For at få punkt- opstilling på teksten, brug forøg indrykning For at få venstre- stillet tekst uden punktopstilling, brug formindsk indrykning Overskrift her For at ændre ”Enhedens navn” og ”Sted og dato”: Klik i menulinjen, vælg ”Indsæt” > ”Sidehoved / Sidefod”. Indføj ”Sted og dato” i feltet for dato og ”Enhedens navn” i Sidefod More prominent Koivulehto examples The laryngeal in PIE *h2ezgh- ‘ashes’ (Danish aske) is visible in Finnish kaski ‘slash-and-burn, swidden’ Finnish kutoa ‘to weave’, North Saami goddi- (< *kuδa-) is directly comparable to Lithuanian áudžiu ‘I weave’ < PIE *h2eu-dh-; the root is the same as in weave, (< *h2ue-bh-), only with a different suffix An example with *h1- is kesä ‘summer’ from PIE *h1es-en-, one of the Indo-European words related to ‘harvest’ (Old Church Slavonic jesenь ‘fall, autumn’; Gothic asans ‘harvest; summer’) Dias 12 Word Exchange at the Gates of Europe

Tekst starter uden punktopstilling For at få punkt- opstilling på teksten, brug forøg indrykning For at få venstre- stillet tekst uden punktopstilling, brug formindsk indrykning Overskrift her For at ændre ”Enhedens navn” og ”Sted og dato”: Klik i menulinjen, vælg ”Indsæt” > ”Sidehoved / Sidefod”. Indføj ”Sted og dato” i feltet for dato og ”Enhedens navn” i Sidefod The problem of Hittite alpaš Problem: One ancient Indo-European language group has preserved *h2 directly as a consonant: Anatolian in Asia Minor with its mots prominent member, Hittite. In this language, a good candidate for a reflex of *h2elbhos exists: alpaš ‘cloud’ This has lead scholars to suggest: ► that ‘white’ is to be reconstructed without an initial consonant (*álbhos) which is impossible in the light of Finnish kalpea, kalvas ► that the word has *h1- a consonant preserved in Fenno-Ugric but not in Hittite. However, it is not likely that a sequence *h1a- existed ► that the word has o-grade in Hittite only (*Holbhos); according to some scholars, h- disappears before o-grade But all other languages point to *-a- (*h2e) - ? ► that alpaš, not meaning ‘white’ anyway, is simply unrelated and possibly a loanword in Hittite - ? Dias

Tekst starter uden punktopstilling For at få punkt- opstilling på teksten, brug forøg indrykning For at få venstre- stillet tekst uden punktopstilling, brug formindsk indrykning Overskrift her For at ændre ”Enhedens navn” og ”Sted og dato”: Klik i menulinjen, vælg ”Indsæt” > ”Sidehoved / Sidefod”. Indføj ”Sted og dato” i feltet for dato og ”Enhedens navn” i Sidefod Frederik Kortlandt’s arguments Frederik Kortlandt’s arguments (2003) for regarding alpaš a loanword: 1) it is not found in Indo-Iranian or Tocharian 2) it has a variant *elb ʰ - in Slavic 3) it has an alternating suffix -it-, -ut- in Slavic and the same suffix with an infixed nasal in Slavic in the word for ‘swan’ 4) it plays a role in Germanic mythology (cf. Eng. elf) 5) it is frequent in European geographical names (Alba, Albion, Elbe, the Alps) Kortlandt concludes that alpaš is a non-Indo-European loanword (from some unknown source) into Anatolian – it simply looks foreign according to him but 2) is generelly acknowledged as “Rozwadowski’s change” and the suffix in 3) is probably Indo-European. The rest of the arguments still speak in favour of a loanword, but not necessarily an non-IE one Dias

Tekst starter uden punktopstilling For at få punkt- opstilling på teksten, brug forøg indrykning For at få venstre- stillet tekst uden punktopstilling, brug formindsk indrykning Overskrift her For at ændre ”Enhedens navn” og ”Sted og dato”: Klik i menulinjen, vælg ”Indsæt” > ”Sidehoved / Sidefod”. Indføj ”Sted og dato” i feltet for dato og ”Enhedens navn” i Sidefod Stealing the thunder of alpaš Jaan Puhvel in his Hittite Etymological Dictionary (followed by Kloekhorst 2008) also denies a connection between alpaš ‘cloud’ and PIE *h2elbhos ‘white’ because the Hittite word mostly refers to dark thunder clouds, not innocent white clouds The argument is quite weak a) ”mostly” – it is not always the case b) Thunder clouds are more relevant in Hitt. texts than summer clouds, cf. Teshub/Tarhunna c) Thunder clouds can be white and dark at the same time d) Thunder clouds can be covered by a generic cloud term anyway, cf. Eng. thunder cloud Dias

Tekst starter uden punktopstilling For at få punkt- opstilling på teksten, brug forøg indrykning For at få venstre- stillet tekst uden punktopstilling, brug formindsk indrykning Overskrift her For at ændre ”Enhedens navn” og ”Sted og dato”: Klik i menulinjen, vælg ”Indsæt” > ”Sidehoved / Sidefod”. Indføj ”Sted og dato” i feltet for dato og ”Enhedens navn” i Sidefod Solution: alpaš is borrowed from NW Indo-European I agree with Kortlandt that alpaš must be a loanword, but it does not have to be non-IE. Two of Kortlandt’s remaining arguments speak for a borrowing from NW Indo-European: 1)It is confined to the West (Germanic, Balto-Slavic, Celtic, Italic, Greek) 2)It plays a role West European mythology 3)It occurs in European place-names (i.e. it is a word that has typically been transmitted I add two more arguments: 4) It has entered into Fenno-Saami with a laryngeal (> *k-) 5) The suffix *-bho- (Hittite -pa-) is common in Indo- European, but virtually absent in Anatolian Dias 16 Word Exchange at the Gates of Europe

Tekst starter uden punktopstilling For at få punkt- opstilling på teksten, brug forøg indrykning For at få venstre- stillet tekst uden punktopstilling, brug formindsk indrykning Overskrift her For at ændre ”Enhedens navn” og ”Sted og dato”: Klik i menulinjen, vælg ”Indsæt” > ”Sidehoved / Sidefod”. Indføj ”Sted og dato” i feltet for dato og ”Enhedens navn” i Sidefod The fate of nominal *-bho- and verbal*-bh- in Anatolian I sift the Anatolian evidence both for nominal *-bho- and the verbal extension *-bh-. There are no certain examples left I have earlier argued (2010) that *-bho- was an old participial suffix. The other participial suffix *-nt- gained an extended use in Anatolian. I therefore believe that *-bho- and *-bh- were replaced in Anatolian but lived on for some time in Core IE We are thus not dealing with an innovation in NW IE, but an archaism. At the same time it shows that *-bho- and *-bh- were alive and productive in PIE Of course we would expect lexicalized archaisms to survive but the corpus does not expose any certain examples. Dias 17 Word Exchange at the Gates of Europe

Tekst starter uden punktopstilling For at få punkt- opstilling på teksten, brug forøg indrykning For at få venstre- stillet tekst uden punktopstilling, brug formindsk indrykning Overskrift her For at ændre ”Enhedens navn” og ”Sted og dato”: Klik i menulinjen, vælg ”Indsæt” > ”Sidehoved / Sidefod”. Indføj ”Sted og dato” i feltet for dato og ”Enhedens navn” i Sidefod Motivation for borrowing The unique Hittite meaning ‘cloud’ need not worry us either since the motivation for the borrowing was most likely mythological, either going via ► ‘vapour, spirit’ as in Germanic *albi- ‘white creature connected with the fog’ (an original dichotomy of white ljósalfar as opposed to the dark døkkálfar, cf. also NHG Weiße Frauen, Dutch Witte Wieven) or ► ‘upper world’ as in Celtic, cf. also Eng. sky ~ Danish sky ‘cloud’. Dias 18 Word Exchange at the Gates of Europe

Tekst starter uden punktopstilling For at få punkt- opstilling på teksten, brug forøg indrykning For at få venstre- stillet tekst uden punktopstilling, brug formindsk indrykning Overskrift her For at ændre ”Enhedens navn” og ”Sted og dato”: Klik i menulinjen, vælg ”Indsæt” > ”Sidehoved / Sidefod”. Indføj ”Sted og dato” i feltet for dato og ”Enhedens navn” i Sidefod Celto-Germanic Migrations into Europe New cultural communities, influenced by Uralic populations in the North One cultural community must have existed across Northern Europe around 2000 e.Kr. and can be connected to the Pre- Celtic Unětice Culture in present-day Czech Republic Around 100 early inherited terms shared by Celtic and Germanic almost all refer to a) Religion and healing b) Warfare, horses, transport As many as 10 terms for ‘wound’! Dias 19 Word Exchange at the Gates of Europe

Tekst starter uden punktopstilling For at få punkt- opstilling på teksten, brug forøg indrykning For at få venstre- stillet tekst uden punktopstilling, brug formindsk indrykning Overskrift her For at ændre ”Enhedens navn” og ”Sted og dato”: Klik i menulinjen, vælg ”Indsæt” > ”Sidehoved / Sidefod”. Indføj ”Sted og dato” i feltet for dato og ”Enhedens navn” i Sidefod Common terms with Uralic PCelt. *sanesto- ‘secret advice’ ~ Fi. sanasto ‘list of words’ (synchronically analyzable as sana ‘word’ + collective -sto), cf. the semantics of PCelt. *rūno- and PGmc. *rūna- ‘secret’ which in itself must be identical to Fi. runo ‘song; poem’. Mod. Ir. lón, pl. lóinte (> Eng. lunch) could represent Late Proto-Fennic *louna ‘southwest; noon; lunch’ (Fi. lounas) which is derived from Proto-Uralic *luwe ‘south’. Note that this word is already known to have been borrowed into Baltic (Latv. launags ‘lunch’, Lith. láunagas ‘dinner’). Fi. maa ‘land’ and its Balto-Fennic cognates go back to Proto-Uralic *maγe, reminiscent both in form and semantics of PCelt. *magos ‘plain, open field’ > OIr mag ‘plain’, W ma ‘place’, Gaul. PN (Arganto-)magus) Fi. tuoni ‘dead’ < Late Proto-Fennic *tōne could formally represent Proto-Celtic *doueno- (item 27). Dias 20 Word Exchange at the Gates of Europe

Tekst starter uden punktopstilling For at få punkt- opstilling på teksten, brug forøg indrykning For at få venstre- stillet tekst uden punktopstilling, brug formindsk indrykning Overskrift her For at ændre ”Enhedens navn” og ”Sted og dato”: Klik i menulinjen, vælg ”Indsæt” > ”Sidehoved / Sidefod”. Indføj ”Sted og dato” i feltet for dato og ”Enhedens navn” i Sidefod Proto-Germanic *halba- ’half’  Fennic *halpa-, gen.*halβan ’reduced; cheap (of prices)’ (Finnish halpa, g. -van, Estonian halb, g. -van) < Fenno-Volgaic *šalV- id. (Mari *šul-δo) Germanic *-b- next to *h- is not evidence for the Gmc. sound shift preceding Verner’s law; rather,*-b- is a reflex of the BF weak grade *-β- before a closed syllable in the paradigm, gen. *halβan Germanic meanings: ’1. incomplete, partial, reduced; 2. a significant portion of; 3. exactly ½’ Better than from an adj. *ḱol-bho- ~ Lith. šalìs ‘side’ Kroonen (fthc. 2012): “No clear etymology” Orel (2003): “A difficult word (…) Probably related to Skt. kálpate ‘succeed; fit; be partaken by’ Lat. scalpere ‘partage’ Dias 21 Word Exchange at the Gates of Europe

Tekst starter uden punktopstilling For at få punkt- opstilling på teksten, brug forøg indrykning For at få venstre- stillet tekst uden punktopstilling, brug formindsk indrykning Overskrift her For at ændre ”Enhedens navn” og ”Sted og dato”: Klik i menulinjen, vælg ”Indsæt” > ”Sidehoved / Sidefod”. Indføj ”Sted og dato” i feltet for dato og ”Enhedens navn” i Sidefod Proto-Germanic hama(n)- ’shape, physical form’, In the individual languages also ’skin (of animal); apparition, ghost; covering; net’  Balto-Fennic *hahmV ’shape’ (Finnish hahmo, haamu ’apparition, ghost’, Lule Saami sjipmō ’similarity’, Mordvin M šama, E čama ’face’); traditionally reconstructed as Fenno- Volgaic *šama; but cf. FU *čamčV ’skin (of animal), membrane’ (N Saami cuoži ’membrane, fleshy fibres on the inner side of the skin’, Khanty čunč ’skin, hide’) BF *hahmV could be metathesis of *čamčV, and the Mordvin forms might just as well < *čama Lule Saami sjipmō looks regular from *šama, cf. that the only other Saami reflex of *šaN-, namely FV *šama-ra ’back of an axe’, also has ”irregular” *šim- for expected †suom-. *ča- still > *cuo/_N (*-m- regularly > *-w- > Ø in cuoži) Dias 22 Word Exchange at the Gates of Europe

Tekst starter uden punktopstilling For at få punkt- opstilling på teksten, brug forøg indrykning For at få venstre- stillet tekst uden punktopstilling, brug formindsk indrykning Overskrift her For at ændre ”Enhedens navn” og ”Sted og dato”: Klik i menulinjen, vælg ”Indsæt” > ”Sidehoved / Sidefod”. Indføj ”Sted og dato” i feltet for dato og ”Enhedens navn” i Sidefod Why that shape? Since Proto-Germanic possessed words with the structure *-VhmV- (e.g. *heuhman- ’mass, heap’), it is likely that Balto-Fennic *hahmV was metathesized after the development of *š and *č to > *h It cannot be excluded that haamu has secondary lengthening from *hamV, and that the latter was borrowed into Gmc., but a spontaneous development *haam- > *hahm- is ad hoc Similar variation between *č- and *s- in cognates of Written Mongolian čamča ’shirt’ (via Persian  py-jamas and very likely also IE words of the camisia family), M. Stachowski in Per Urales ad Orientem [Fs. Janhunen], Helsinki 2012 Dias 23 Word Exchange at the Gates of Europe

Tekst starter uden punktopstilling For at få punkt- opstilling på teksten, brug forøg indrykning For at få venstre- stillet tekst uden punktopstilling, brug formindsk indrykning Overskrift her For at ændre ”Enhedens navn” og ”Sted og dato”: Klik i menulinjen, vælg ”Indsæt” > ”Sidehoved / Sidefod”. Indføj ”Sted og dato” i feltet for dato og ”Enhedens navn” i Sidefod Traditional etymology: PIE root *(s)ḱem- ’cover’ There probably was no such root: Germanic *skamō- < *skH2-mo- ’(female) organ’, cf. sex and *-mo- as a suffix in words for body-parts  *sekh2- ’to cut’. Rather than  ’split’, probably  ’naked/exposed skin’  ’to cut/remove hair’ Cf. FU *ńarma ’female organs; groin’  *ńarV- ’hairless skin’ + -ma ~ PIE *der-mo- ’skin’  *der- ’to flay’ and Arabic awrah ’intimate parts’ (< √’a-w-r ’nakedness’)  Pers. ’shame; (young) woman’ ”Kvindens køn er så skamfuldt, at alle ord vi kender for det er lidt ubehagelige …” (Tine Byrckel in Sprog og sex, Copenhagen 2012) Dias

Tekst starter uden punktopstilling For at få punkt- opstilling på teksten, brug forøg indrykning For at få venstre- stillet tekst uden punktopstilling, brug formindsk indrykning Overskrift her For at ændre ”Enhedens navn” og ”Sted og dato”: Klik i menulinjen, vælg ”Indsæt” > ”Sidehoved / Sidefod”. Indføj ”Sted og dato” i feltet for dato og ”Enhedens navn” i Sidefod Proto-Germanic *hamara- ‘hammer’ Classical etymology: ~ Old Church Slavonic kamy, Slovincian kamor ’stone’, Lithuanian akmuõ ’stone’ ašmuõ ’whetstone; cutting edge, blade’ Sanskrit áśman- ’stone; thunderbolt’, Avestan asman- ’stove, heaven’; Gmc. *hemina- ’heaven’, Greek καμάρα ’vault’ etc. Dias 25 Word Exchange at the Gates of Europe

Tekst starter uden punktopstilling For at få punkt- opstilling på teksten, brug forøg indrykning For at få venstre- stillet tekst uden punktopstilling, brug formindsk indrykning Overskrift her For at ændre ”Enhedens navn” og ”Sted og dato”: Klik i menulinjen, vælg ”Indsæt” > ”Sidehoved / Sidefod”. Indføj ”Sted og dato” i feltet for dato og ”Enhedens navn” i Sidefod Meanings of Old Norse hamarr Old Norse hamarr meant: (1) hammer (2) back of an axe (3) crag, precipice (rather than just “stone”); berghamarr ‘rocky precipice’, hamarrifa ‘rift in a crag’ The latter meaning, however, is more likely figurative than primary. In the Da. place-names Hammer Odde, Hammerknuden (on Bornholm, 1539 Hammar), Hammer Bakker (1503 Hammer) the name refers to the hammerhead-shaped crag of granite – again, the meaning ‘hammer(head)’ is primary, its use of a rock is a figurative description of a steep rugged mass of rock projecting outwards and upwards. It mostly occurs in coastal areas and never seems to be used just of rocks or stones in general that are not protruding or hammer-shaped. This use is confirmed by a common noun hammer ‘(steep) crag’ in Danish dialects. Dias 26 Word Exchange at the Gates of Europe

Tekst starter uden punktopstilling For at få punkt- opstilling på teksten, brug forøg indrykning For at få venstre- stillet tekst uden punktopstilling, brug formindsk indrykning Overskrift her For at ændre ”Enhedens navn” og ”Sted og dato”: Klik i menulinjen, vælg ”Indsæt” > ”Sidehoved / Sidefod”. Indføj ”Sted og dato” i feltet for dato og ”Enhedens navn” i Sidefod Another loan in the reverse direction  Balto-Fennic *hamara (> Fi. hamara ‘back of an axe’, Est. hamar, hammar ‘back of a knife’). The most important reason is that the word must be inherited in Balto-Fennic from at least the Fenno-Volgaic stage. It can be connected to Saami *s ɤ mērē ‘back/pole of an axe, back of knife’ (> N Saami šibmar, Lule Saami sjimēr, Skolt Saami šammer) and Mordvin *šuvV ‘back of a knife’ (Erzya čov, čovone, Moksha šov). Western Saami *ši- ( < Proto-Saami *sï-) must be the regular outcome of *ša- before nasal While Uralic and Fenno-Volgaic *š- indeed normally yields Saami *s-, the actually attested forms, which are comparatively few. Only one alternative surrounding: *su- before a labial stop (N Saami suhpi ‘asp’ ~ Fi. haapa). When followed by other vowels, both these vowels and *š- behave as expected (e.g. N Saami savvi- ‘heal a wound’ < FV *šeŋä and N Saami soarvi ‘dead pine-tree < PU *šorwa- ‘to dry (out)’). Dias 27 Word Exchange at the Gates of Europe

Tekst starter uden punktopstilling For at få punkt- opstilling på teksten, brug forøg indrykning For at få venstre- stillet tekst uden punktopstilling, brug formindsk indrykning Overskrift her For at ændre ”Enhedens navn” og ”Sted og dato”: Klik i menulinjen, vælg ”Indsæt” > ”Sidehoved / Sidefod”. Indføj ”Sted og dato” i feltet for dato og ”Enhedens navn” i Sidefod Proto-Germanic PGmc. *punga- ’purse, pouch’ > Go. puggs, ON pungr, OE pung, OHG ‐ pfung otherwise etymologically obscure, but  PBF (PFS?) *punka, gen. pungan Est. pung ‘something chubby and protruding, clod, bump, swelling’ < PFU *puŋka, *poŋka Dias 28 Word Exchange at the Gates of Europe

Tekst starter uden punktopstilling For at få punkt- opstilling på teksten, brug forøg indrykning For at få venstre- stillet tekst uden punktopstilling, brug formindsk indrykning Overskrift her For at ændre ”Enhedens navn” og ”Sted og dato”: Klik i menulinjen, vælg ”Indsæt” > ”Sidehoved / Sidefod”. Indføj ”Sted og dato” i feltet for dato og ”Enhedens navn” i Sidefod Proto-Germanic *haljō- ‘the abode of the dead’ Most often seen as reflecting PIE *k’ol-ieh ₂, derived from * k’el- ‘to cover, conceal’. However, if Fi. Koljo ‘name of a giant’ is a Germanic loan, and the Finnish vocalism constitutes a problem—why is PGmc. *-a- substituted with - o-?  Fenno-Ugric *kolja, reconstructed also on the basis of Komi kul’ ‘water spirit’ and Mansi kuĺ-nāj ǝ r ‘master of the netherworld, devil’. Internally analyzable as a participial form or agent noun derivative consisting of the Proto-Uralic verbal root *kole- ‘to die’ and the agent-marker -ja with regular loss of root-final -e The figure Kalma in Finnish mythology ‘guardian of the abode of the dead’ corresponds to Hel in Nordic mythology Dias 29 Word Exchange at the Gates of Europe

Tekst starter uden punktopstilling For at få punkt- opstilling på teksten, brug forøg indrykning For at få venstre- stillet tekst uden punktopstilling, brug formindsk indrykning Overskrift her For at ændre ”Enhedens navn” og ”Sted og dato”: Klik i menulinjen, vælg ”Indsæt” > ”Sidehoved / Sidefod”. Indføj ”Sted og dato” i feltet for dato og ”Enhedens navn” i Sidefod Volgaic loanwords in Baltic Loanwords from Baltic into Volgaic languages (Mari and Mordvin) are now generally accepted (e.g. Mägiste 1959, Van Pareren 2005, 2008) But there are also loanwords in the reverse direction! Volgaic  Baltic Dias 30 Word Exchange at the Gates of Europe

Tekst starter uden punktopstilling For at få punkt- opstilling på teksten, brug forøg indrykning For at få venstre- stillet tekst uden punktopstilling, brug formindsk indrykning Overskrift her For at ændre ”Enhedens navn” og ”Sted og dato”: Klik i menulinjen, vælg ”Indsæt” > ”Sidehoved / Sidefod”. Indføj ”Sted og dato” i feltet for dato og ”Enhedens navn” i Sidefod Lithuanian šẽškas, Latvian sesks ‘polecat; ferret’ Old etymologies: a)Related to Vedic (YV) káśa- and the Rigvedic hapax kaśīkā- (Fick 1879) b)Reduplicative formation of the root in šìkti ‘to shit’, i.e. *še- š(i)ka-s with typical loss of -i- (Kalima 1936) The reconstruction of a PIE form *kek’- on the basis of Vedic- Baltic comparison has almost become a generally accepted etymology, mentioned as the only option in standard handbooks. However, the irregular correspondence Lith. š- ~ Ved. k- has virtually no counterparts Dias 31 Word Exchange at the Gates of Europe

Tekst starter uden punktopstilling For at få punkt- opstilling på teksten, brug forøg indrykning For at få venstre- stillet tekst uden punktopstilling, brug formindsk indrykning Overskrift her For at ændre ”Enhedens navn” og ”Sted og dato”: Klik i menulinjen, vælg ”Indsæt” > ”Sidehoved / Sidefod”. Indføj ”Sted og dato” i feltet for dato og ”Enhedens navn” i Sidefod A borrowing in the reverse direction? Thomsen (1890): Veps hähk ‘otter’, Finnish dial. häähkä, Olonets Karelian heähku, Lude heähkäine ‘European mink’, is a loanword from the Baltic predecessor of Lith. šẽškas Wichmann (apud Kalima 1936) instead suggested that the Baltic word was the one that had been borrowed, and that Balto-Fennic was the provider. He pointed to Mari šäšk ǝ, šašk ǝ, meaning either ‘mink’ or ‘otter’ depending on the dialect which corresponds nicely with the Balto-Fennic protoform *hähkä. He envisaged a borrowing at the Early Proto-Fennic stage, when the form would still have been *šäškä. Dias 32 Word Exchange at the Gates of Europe

Tekst starter uden punktopstilling For at få punkt- opstilling på teksten, brug forøg indrykning For at få venstre- stillet tekst uden punktopstilling, brug formindsk indrykning Overskrift her For at ændre ”Enhedens navn” og ”Sted og dato”: Klik i menulinjen, vælg ”Indsæt” > ”Sidehoved / Sidefod”. Indføj ”Sted og dato” i feltet for dato og ”Enhedens navn” i Sidefod The importance of šeške ‘daughter-in-law’ Mari šäšk ǝ, šašk ǝ ‘mink; otter’ is already known to have been borrowed into neighbouring Turkic languages: Chuvash šašk ǝ̑ ‘European mink’ Bashkir šäšk ǝ ‘id.’, (dial.) šaška ‘marten’ Tatar čäškä, čäšk ǝ ‘a water animal’. Meadow Mari šeške ‘daughter-in-law; young lady’, Hill Mari ‘daughter-in-law’; in some dialects the meaning is more specific, such as ‘the wife of one’s son’, ‘the wife of one’s younger brother’, ‘the wife of one’s husband’s younger brother’ and ‘the wife of one’s wife’s younger brother’. Dias 33 Word Exchange at the Gates of Europe

Tekst starter uden punktopstilling For at få punkt- opstilling på teksten, brug forøg indrykning For at få venstre- stillet tekst uden punktopstilling, brug formindsk indrykning Overskrift her For at ændre ”Enhedens navn” og ”Sted og dato”: Klik i menulinjen, vælg ”Indsæt” > ”Sidehoved / Sidefod”. Indføj ”Sted og dato” i feltet for dato og ”Enhedens navn” i Sidefod Weasel = ‘bride’, ‘daughter-/sister-in-law’, ‘young female’ across West Eurasia Danish brud ‘bride; least weasel, Mustela nivalis’ Germanic *marþu- ‘marten’ ~ Lith. martì ‘bride’, Latvian mārša ‘sister-in-law’ Italian donnola, Portuguese doninha ‘weasel, lit. ‘little lady’, Spanish comadreja ‘weasel, little god-mother’ Basque satandre ‘weasel’, < *sagut- ‘mouse’ + andere ‘lady’ Greek γαλέη ‘weasel’ ~ γάλως ‘sister-in-law’ Modern Greek νυφίτσα ‘weasel; little bride’ Hungarian hölgy ‘weasel, bride’ Russian kunica ‘(little) marten; bride (in traditional wedding rituals)’ Armenian hašn ‑ owk ‘weasel’ ~ harsn ‑ owk ‘little bride’ Turkish gelin ‘bride’, dim. gelincik ‘little bride, little young woman; weasel’ Also in cultures of Western Siberia from where furs were provided (Laakso 2005). Dias 34 Word Exchange at the Gates of Europe

Tekst starter uden punktopstilling For at få punkt- opstilling på teksten, brug forøg indrykning For at få venstre- stillet tekst uden punktopstilling, brug formindsk indrykning Overskrift her For at ændre ”Enhedens navn” og ”Sted og dato”: Klik i menulinjen, vælg ”Indsæt” > ”Sidehoved / Sidefod”. Indføj ”Sted og dato” i feltet for dato og ”Enhedens navn” i Sidefod The Indo-European ‘sister’-term Mari šeške ‘daughter-in-law; young lady’ is thus probably related to šäšk ǝ, šašk ǝ ‘otter, mink’, at least indirectly. The former is likely to be formed as a diminutive of the word for ‘sister’, which today is KB š ǝ̑ žar, U šüž ǝ r, B šužar. Two Fenno-Volgaic protoforms: *sasare (also Fenno- Permian)  Early Indo-Aryan or Indo-Iranian, and *sisare or *sesare, regarded  Baltic. The Mari word can come from either of them; the rounded vocalism in the first syllable is secondary from assimilation to the sibilant. Mari has to velar diminutive suffixes; -γ ǝ and -ka ~ -(i)kä, going back to PU *-kV and *-kkV respectively. The former is realized as the allomorph -k ǝ after a sibilant. It is therefore likely that both šäšk ǝ, šašk ǝ ‘mink; otter’ and šeške ‘daughter-in-law; young lady; sister-in-law’ are diminutives of the ‘sister’-word, the former of *sasare and the latter of *sesare, at an early time when the vocalism in the Mari ‘sister’-word had not yet become rounded Dias 35 Word Exchange at the Gates of Europe

Tekst starter uden punktopstilling For at få punkt- opstilling på teksten, brug forøg indrykning For at få venstre- stillet tekst uden punktopstilling, brug formindsk indrykning Overskrift her For at ændre ”Enhedens navn” og ”Sted og dato”: Klik i menulinjen, vælg ”Indsæt” > ”Sidehoved / Sidefod”. Indføj ”Sted og dato” i feltet for dato og ”Enhedens navn” i Sidefod Loanwords connected to fur trade: mink English mink, Middle Eng. menks, mynkes (15 th -16 th c.) Low German mink ‘otter’ Swedish mänk, mink Of unknown origin. Today it denotes a North American animal, but it was originally used only of the European mink (Mustela lutreola, Danish nertz, flodilder). Etymological dictionaries typically treat it as an ancient culture-word connected to fur trade around the Baltic sea, without speculating further about its origins Dias

Tekst starter uden punktopstilling For at få punkt- opstilling på teksten, brug forøg indrykning For at få venstre- stillet tekst uden punktopstilling, brug formindsk indrykning Overskrift her For at ændre ”Enhedens navn” og ”Sted og dato”: Klik i menulinjen, vælg ”Indsæt” > ”Sidehoved / Sidefod”. Indføj ”Sted og dato” i feltet for dato og ”Enhedens navn” i Sidefod Weasels and burbots Curious double meanings: Latin mūstēla Greek galéē Hungarian mëny-hal (hal ‘fish’), lit. ‘daughter-in-law fish’ or (Old Hung.) ‘bride fish’ ‘weasel’ and ‘burbot’, a sweetwater fish species (related to the cod) with which it shares similarities both in visual characteristics and behavior. West Slavic words for ‘burbot’, in Baltic transferred to the salt- water ‘cod’: Sorbian mjenk Czech mník Lithuanian ménkė Latv. męnca Dias

Tekst starter uden punktopstilling For at få punkt- opstilling på teksten, brug forøg indrykning For at få venstre- stillet tekst uden punktopstilling, brug formindsk indrykning Overskrift her For at ændre ”Enhedens navn” og ”Sted og dato”: Klik i menulinjen, vælg ”Indsæt” > ”Sidehoved / Sidefod”. Indføj ”Sted og dato” i feltet for dato og ”Enhedens navn” i Sidefod Slovenian men ǝ ̀k, menká All derived from Late Common Slavic *mьnь, reconstructed on the basis of Ru. men’, Ukr. min’, Slovak mieň and the rarer Czech simplex men ̌. The root man- in Serbo-Croatian manić, curiously missing from Vasmer ( ), also fits in (cf. pas ‘dog’ < *mьnь), while the Lechitic derivatives Polish miętus ( → Belarusian mjantúz), Kashubian mińtus, as well as Rusyn mn’uh, Russian dial. ment’uk ( → Moksha Mordvin ment’uk, Erzya Mordvin *mänt’uk) are less well understood. Dias

Tekst starter uden punktopstilling For at få punkt- opstilling på teksten, brug forøg indrykning For at få venstre- stillet tekst uden punktopstilling, brug formindsk indrykning Overskrift her For at ændre ”Enhedens navn” og ”Sted og dato”: Klik i menulinjen, vælg ”Indsæt” > ”Sidehoved / Sidefod”. Indføj ”Sted og dato” i feltet for dato og ”Enhedens navn” i Sidefod Fenno-Ugric *menV ‘burbot’ and the importance of burbots The Hungarian mëny looks as if = ‘daughter-in-law’ But Hill Mari (West Cheremis) men, men-gol, also ‘burbot’. Skolt Saami has manij ‘(big) whitefish, Coregonus (lavaretus)’, moanji, moanjigaž ‘id.’ Correspond to each other as from a common protoform From burbot skin Fenno-Ugric forest peoples have traditionally produced clothing – coats, boots, and caps – justifying an analogy with terrestrial animals hunted for their pelt (Armstrong 1997). The burbot along with the sturgeon and sterlet were so important for the Khanty in the time of Russian expansions in the 1600s that a particularly bad fishing season could threaten the very existence of a tribe. Dias

Tekst starter uden punktopstilling For at få punkt- opstilling på teksten, brug forøg indrykning For at få venstre- stillet tekst uden punktopstilling, brug formindsk indrykning Overskrift her For at ændre ”Enhedens navn” og ”Sted og dato”: Klik i menulinjen, vælg ”Indsæt” > ”Sidehoved / Sidefod”. Indføj ”Sted og dato” i feltet for dato og ”Enhedens navn” i Sidefod Whether the Baltic and Slavic forms are Indo-European or borrowed from Fenno-Volgaic, it seems clear that the Germanic term for the mink must derive from the Balto- Slavic fish-name. It is further conceivable that the term mink spread in Western Europe under the influence of Du. minneken ‘playful term for a female’ > Eng. minikin (attested from the 16 th c.). Dias

Tekst starter uden punktopstilling For at få punkt- opstilling på teksten, brug forøg indrykning For at få venstre- stillet tekst uden punktopstilling, brug formindsk indrykning Overskrift her For at ændre ”Enhedens navn” og ”Sted og dato”: Klik i menulinjen, vælg ”Indsæt” > ”Sidehoved / Sidefod”. Indføj ”Sted og dato” i feltet for dato og ”Enhedens navn” i Sidefod Fenno-Ugric Ethnonyms: What is going on? Finns ~ Proto-Germanic *finōn- ’(fish) fin, fish scale, pimple, any kind of protuberance on the skin’ Suomi ~ Finnish suomu ’fish scale’ Veps ~ Saami *vε ̄ psē ’fin’ (e.g. > Inari Saami vepsi) Votes (Finnish Vatja-) ~ Baltic *vadja- ’patch, fin’ Lapps ~ e.g. Scandinavian lap(p) ’patch’ Ugrians ~ Russian ugor’ ’pimple’ Estonia  Latin Aestii, Old Norse Eistri- ~ Proto-Baltic *aistra- ’pimple, larva under the skin of cattle’, Slavic jester- ’sturgeon’ Sambi ~ Finnish sampi ’sturgeon’ < Fenno-Ugric ’back-fin of a fish’ Latin Cornuti finni = Old Norse hornfinnar = Tafeistr ’horned finns’, cf. Latin aci-penser ’sturgeon’, lit. ’peak-fin’ ~ Germanic-Baltic-Slavic *ak-ster- ’sturgeon’ (Danish star ~ Norwegian finne ’stiff grass species’) Dias

Tekst starter uden punktopstilling For at få punkt- opstilling på teksten, brug forøg indrykning For at få venstre- stillet tekst uden punktopstilling, brug formindsk indrykning Overskrift her For at ændre ”Enhedens navn” og ”Sted og dato”: Klik i menulinjen, vælg ”Indsæt” > ”Sidehoved / Sidefod”. Indføj ”Sted og dato” i feltet for dato og ”Enhedens navn” i Sidefod Aestiorum gentes The original stem was aistr-, tafaistr-: ► Eistra dolgi ‘the Estonian enemy’ (Ynglingatal) ► devenit in Eistriam, puer Olavis Eistriis in servum venumdatur ‘came to Eistria and bought the boy Olav from Eistria as a slave’ (Historia Norvegiae) utan foru i aina oy viþr Aistland, sum haitir Dagaiþi ‘[they] travelled to an island off Estonia called Dagö’ (Guta Saga, 13 th c.) 11 th c. runestone (U 722), Löts parish, Uppland: tafaistr ∙ lit ∙ raisa ∙ stain ∙ at ∙ a[----- b]roÞur ∙ sin ‘Tafeistr raised this stone in memory of his brother’. Dias

Tekst starter uden punktopstilling For at få punkt- opstilling på teksten, brug forøg indrykning For at få venstre- stillet tekst uden punktopstilling, brug formindsk indrykning Overskrift her For at ændre ”Enhedens navn” og ”Sted og dato”: Klik i menulinjen, vælg ”Indsæt” > ”Sidehoved / Sidefod”. Indføj ”Sted og dato” i feltet for dato og ”Enhedens navn” i Sidefod Aestiorum gentes Not Proto-Baltic *āist- ‘to burn’ = ‘dry land’ (i.e. not the sea), or referring to slash-and-burn cultivation techniques Despite Baltic place-names like Aĩstere and Aisternīki in Latvia and Eistrai in Lithuania The main argument is the traditional Estonian self- designation maarahvas still in the modern language is literally ‘land-people’, maakeel ‘Estonian language’, lit. ‘land-tongue’, maa-sõna ‘genuine Estonian expression’ lit. ‘land-word’, etc. However, this term is contrasted specifically with the name of another Balto-Fennic population, the closely related Livonians, who were primarily fishermen and literally called themselves ‘inhabitants of the coast’, rāndalist, who spoke rāndakēļ ‘Livonian’, lit. ‘coast(al) tongue’ Dias

Tekst starter uden punktopstilling For at få punkt- opstilling på teksten, brug forøg indrykning For at få venstre- stillet tekst uden punktopstilling, brug formindsk indrykning Overskrift her For at ændre ”Enhedens navn” og ”Sted og dato”: Klik i menulinjen, vælg ”Indsæt” > ”Sidehoved / Sidefod”. Indføj ”Sted og dato” i feltet for dato og ”Enhedens navn” i Sidefod *aistra- is the Proto-Baltic translation of Proto-Germanic *finō-, *finna- It can be reconstructed on the basis of 1)Lithuanian aistrà ‘intense passion’, cf. Greek oĩstros ‘gadfly; intense passion’, a merger of PIE *(h ₂ )oid-tro- ‘one who makes (sth) swell’ (cf. Greek oĩdos ‘tumour’, Germanic *aita- ‘abscess, ulcer’) and *h ₃ ois-tro- ‘irritator, one who sets (sby) in vehement motion’ (cf. Avestan aešma- ‘anger’, Lat. īra ‘id.’, Greek oĩma ‘rush, attack, rage (of animals)’) 2) Livonian aistar, vistar ‘pimple’, borrowed from *aistra- and *viestra- with prothetic *vie- as reflex of *(H)oi- as also in *vienas ‘1’ Dias

Tekst starter uden punktopstilling For at få punkt- opstilling på teksten, brug forøg indrykning For at få venstre- stillet tekst uden punktopstilling, brug formindsk indrykning Overskrift her For at ændre ”Enhedens navn” og ”Sted og dato”: Klik i menulinjen, vælg ”Indsæt” > ”Sidehoved / Sidefod”. Indføj ”Sted og dato” i feltet for dato og ”Enhedens navn” i Sidefod ’Fish-scale’  ’coins, money; silver’ as in Vogul kam, Hungarian hálpenz ’fish scale’, lit. ’fish money’; interference between kam ’silver’ and kåper ’Russian’ in Vogul folk-poetry; A term ‘fish-skin’ could have referred to an important garment. Fenno-Ugric forest peoples traditionally produced clothing – coats, boots, and caps – from fish-skin, justifying an analogy with terrestrial animals hunted for their pelt. The burbot along with the sturgeon and sterlet were so important for the Khanty in the time of Russian expansions in the 1600s that a particularly bad fishing season could threaten the very existence of a tribe. Dias

Tekst starter uden punktopstilling For at få punkt- opstilling på teksten, brug forøg indrykning For at få venstre- stillet tekst uden punktopstilling, brug formindsk indrykning Overskrift her For at ændre ”Enhedens navn” og ”Sted og dato”: Klik i menulinjen, vælg ”Indsæt” > ”Sidehoved / Sidefod”. Indføj ”Sted og dato” i feltet for dato og ”Enhedens navn” i Sidefod Dias