Det Teknologibrugende Menneske - kulturlig læring -

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1 Det Teknologibrugende Menneske - kulturlig læring -
Uddrag v/ Tia Hansen Psykologi, 5. BA aau, 27. okt. 2003

2 - disp - CSCL Nogle almenpsykoligisk informerede forudsætninger og distinktioner Kulturlig læring Eksempel på økologisk refortolkning af ”interaktionen selv” under CSCL Om collaborative learning Analyseredskab (evt, kan også nøjes med SFL-model) Ovenstående bør egtl. slås sm. til at være = LOM-silkeborg Spørgetime eller lidt om UE Evaluering af kurset FL03e DTM slut

3 Lokalisering af hci, cscw, cscl, cmc?
Kort opsamling om ”felterne” ift hinanden: De afviger mht. i hvert fald genstand historisk fremkomst dominerende teorier involverede discipliner (fag) forskergrupper Danske bidrag er typisk mere ”spekulative”, almene /rammeteoretiske og/eller naturalistiske (og mindre ”evidensbaserede”) end mainstream FL03e DTM slut

4 - CSCL -

5 Undervisningsteknologiens historie
Timothy Koschmann (1996): Paradigm Shifts and Instructional Technology: An Introduction. In T. Koschmann (Ed.): CSCL: Theory and Practice of an Emerging Paradigm (pp. 1-23). New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates FL03e DTM slut

6 CSCL litteraturen Computerstøttet, samarbejdende læring
Fra indledningen til et forskningsprogram (Dillenbourg et al, 1995) Til afslutningen (Schwartz, 1999) (Begge i kompendiet) FL03e DTM slut

7 CSCL temaets udvikling
(jf. Dillenbourg et al, 1999) Paradigme: Effekt Hovedspørgsmål: Lærer man mere ved CL end alene? Svar: Det kommer an på…! Ofte effekt, men CL er i sig selv hverken nødvendig eller tilstrækkelig. Paradigme: Betingelser Hovedspørgsmål: Under hvilke omstændigheder da? Svar: Grp.størrelse, alder, homo vs heterogen gruppe, og selvf. hvad opgaven er, spiller alle ind - og sammen. Paradigme: Interaktionen selv Hovedspørgsmål: Hvad sker der da under interaktionen - som kunne være det interessante? FL03e DTM slut

8 Kommunikation? Grice-maxim: ytrer os med ’mindste nødv. anstrengelse’
Clark & Brennan: mindste fælles anstrengelse: Grounding Grounding-mekanismer varierer med mediet mm: I non-interaktiv kommunikation afpasser afsenderend meddelelsen efter (de formodede) karakteristika ved modtageren (Krauss & Fussell) I direkte interaktion monitoreres i stedet - og om nødvendigt repareres - den fælles forståelse (Kayser). ”Fortolkningsbyrde” et muligt alment begreb? Mængde varierer med deltager-forskellighed, fordeling med status mmm (ideel vs faktisk fordeling). FL03e DTM slut

9 Samarbejde? Co-operation: Arbejdsdelt
Collaboration: ”Coordinated synchronous activity” (Roschelle & Teasley, 1995; den kanoniske definition i CSCL kredse) Schwartz (1999): Effort after shared meaning Baker et al (1998): Surplus grounding  learning (”surplus grounding” = grounding udover hvad kræves for at fortsætte interaktionen) FL03e DTM slut

10 - almenpsyk. forudsætninger / distinktioner -

11 Minimum nødv. distinktioner med CSCL som tema
Generelt: Hvem forsøger at lære hvad sammen med hvem under brug af hvilke redskaber Subjekt 1 er udgangspunkt for en psykologisk analyse. Bl.a. hvor gammel, hvorfor? Objektet - hvad er det, hun lærer (og er læringen intentionen?) Andre S - direkte tilstedeværende; samfundsindlejring Redskaber - materielle i gængs forstand såvel som konceptuelle Figur fra side 36 i Jens Mammen (1993): The Elements of Psychology. I N. Engelsted et al (red): The Societal Subject. Danmark: Aarhus University Press. FL03e DTM slut

12 Forskellige computerroller
Interaktion med, omkring eller via computer? Med: Er der kun eet subjekt, der interagerer med computer (som evt. er ”simuleret person” eller transparant) – HCI, CAI Omkring: Er computeren et ekstra redskab, interagerende subjekter har foruden almindelig ’co-presense? (supplerende, forstærkende rolle) Via: Er computeren eneste direkte led mellem interagerende subjekter (kompenserende rolle, distancemulighed) S S FL03e DTM slut

13 The mutual knowledge problem
”derives from the assumption that to be understood, speakers must formulate their contributions with an awareness of what their addressee does and does not know. Effective communication, in Roger Brown’s (1965) felicitous phrase, ”requires that the point of view of the auditor be realistically imagined” (p. 342). Thus, communicating parties are faced continuously with the task of constructing their common cognitive environment — that is, ascertaining and representing the information that they and the other participants can (and will) assume to be known to all.” (Krauss & Fussell, 1990 p. 112) FL03e DTM slut 4

14 - kulturlig læring -

15 Barnets kulturelle udvikling iflg. Vygotsky
"In the process of development the child not only masters the items of cultural experience but the habits and forms of cultural behaviour, the cultural methods of reasoning." Vygotsky, 1994 (1929) - forløber for medierings trekanten. Udv. altså ad to linjer, naturlig modning + kulturlig forbedring af de psykologiske funktioner. Et ældre barn kan huske mere end et yngre, af to helt forsk. grunde, hhv. bedre memorering og bedre metoder dertil. Vygotsky, 1994 (1929) - forløber for medierings trekanten præsenteres her i forb. med mnemonics forsøg og ideen om historisk-genetisk metode. FL03e DTM slut 15

16 Fra chimp til msk. Vygotsky om omvejen til objektet, og til subjektet selv Brug af auxilliary stimulus: ej længere slave af det perceptuelle felt kan styre sin egen adfærd fra ydersiden S R A (delvist i termer af S-R pga. datidens referenceramme, i.e. til rådighed stående teoretiske værktøjer) FL03e DTM slut 9

17 Mediering Vygotsky’s auxilliary stimulus: X
B X Vygotsky’s auxilliary stimulus: Kulturelle midler, fx tegn, giver ny ’omvejs’forbindelse til O. S O M Medieringstrekanten som typisk brugt i dag: Både den naturlige S-O og den kulturlige S-M-O forbindelse. S O M Også personer medierer (se fx Cole & Engeström, 1993; Mammen, 1993). FL03e DTM slut 10

18 Tre måder at lære af andre iflg. Tomasello; Kruger & Ratner (1993)
(Propriety conditions) Imitation Instruktion Samarbejdende Model Den lærende Instruktør Perspektiv-tagning Koordineret PT (Intersubj.) Integreret PT (Refleksiv IS) Partner Den lærende FL03e DTM slut 14

19 Leontjevs formulering af skraldeeffekten
”Et dyrs individuelle adfærd afhænger … af to former for erfaring: Af artens erfaring, der er fikseret i den ubetinget-reflektoriske, instinktive adfærds mekanismer, og af den individuelle erfaring, der dannes i løbet af ontogenesen. … Til forskel fra dyrene har [mennesket] endnu en form for erfaring: Den samfundsmæssigt-historiske erfaring, som mennesket tilegner sig i løbet af sin ontogenese. Det drejer sig om en artserfaring [men den] fikseres dog ikke arveligt og adskiller sig derved fundamentalt fra dyrenes artserfaring. Selv om mennesket tilegner sig artserfaringen i løbet af ontogenesen, kan den dog ikke sættes lig med den individuelle erfaring … som den adskiller sig fra ikke blot i sit indhold, men også på den måde, den bliver tilegenet på.” (Leontjew, 1977 II pp. 427f). FL03e DTM slut 13

20 - bag det tilsyneladende og foruden det aktuelle -
Embeddedness of information and of learning when learning by grounding

21 A micro grain of life A human subject’s life is continuous.
From two subjects’ life we cut a small grain, an “episode”. We analyze in detail the verbal operations here. Subject A Subject B FL03e DTM slut

22 Background knowledge They do not start from scratch
They are not heading for nowhere They are not operating in a vacuum Knowledge from the past, information available in the present, and motives for the future - are integrated kinds of information that guide their operations in the episode. FL03e DTM slut

23 The ecological approach
Organisms can pick-up complex patterns which specify layout and objects in their natural habitat - we are from phylogenesis equipped to detect some patterns, during ontogenesis tuned to detect still more. The “powerty of the stimulus” is a methodological artefact of traditional lab-research Thus, investigation starts by describing classes of available information. Neisser, 1976; similar points by, e.g., Leontjev, 1977. Similar points maybe also by Bateson. FL03e DTM slut

24 Communicative activity - classes of information
Internal field -1 for each subject External field Background (past) Context (present) Focus Interpretation Message Cognitive Environmental Personal = personal/motivational Cognitive = cognitive/emotional Environmental = physical/social Personal Cultural Model developed by Larsen, 1989 FL03e DTM slut

25 External and internal field
The external field is the objective / observable part. The internal field is the subjective / personal part and varies between subjects. Internal field -1 for each subject External field Personal Cultural Cognitive Interpretation Message Environmental Background (past) Context (present) Focus For the subject, the activity is an integration of the externally available information (“stimuli”) with the internally available information (goals, memories, knowledge) in a continous, active exploration of what is going on. FL03e DTM slut

26 The focus The message’s content is the external part of the focus.
Internal field -1 for each subject External field Personal Cultural Cognitive Interpretation Message Environmental Background (past) Context (present) Focus The message’s content is the external part of the focus. The subject’s interpretation and plans is the internal part The episode is the totality of the presently available information. Of that, some parts are taken as focus (of consciousness, awareness, indexing, etc.). The rest is “left in” the context, but remains influential (and potential focus). FL03e DTM slut

27 The external context is the physical and social situation (cf
The external context is the physical and social situation (cf. “co-presence heuristic”). The internal context is the subject’s emotions, goals etc. Internal field -1 for each subject External field Personal Cultural Cognitive Interpretation Message Environmental Background (past) Context (present) Focus The contexts No interpretation or goals / plans is possible without taking into account the context. Most utterances mean something completely different, dependent on context. Thus, the context is not in awareness but it influences the meaning of what is in the focus. FL03e DTM slut

28 The background The history has left its traces in
The internal background is the person’s total autobiography (schemata + facts + specific memories), and the motives from there leading her/him to this situation. The external background is the cultural history that has shaped the practiceforms, institutions, conventions, and artefacts of the context. Internal field -1 for each subject External field Personal Cultural Cognitive Interpretation Message Environmental Background (past) Context (present) Focus The background provides the possible contexts, and serves as a basis for “selecting” the actual ones. Thus, it frames what information is included. The history has left its traces in the external environment. It does, however, take culturally aquired knowledge (internal) of the subject to pick them up - that is, world knowledge, which is, of course, internal (also schemata and facts). Thus, this is maybe where the claim about inherent interaction between internal and external is most easy to understand? FL03e DTM slut

29 “Learning” refers to: AND
A process: The activity that accomplishes a change. All classes of information are invoked for this. AND A product: What is changed after the process. All internal classes of information may be that. In principle, all external too. Subject A Subject B In principle, all classes are updated. On the one hand, of course, a single episode’s possible impact on a class of information will depend on the size of that knowledge base. E.g., it takes more to change a motive than an emotion. On the other hand, schemata are sometimes changed in a rather “revolutionary” (sudden, abrupt, and pervasive) way. In collaborative learning, most often there will be a very concrete, external product. FL03e DTM slut

30 Example of levels of updating
Pre-assumptions about the social distribution of knowledge is a primary factor in determining what to say: From assessment of the categories to which alter belongs, we determine what has to be made explicit about x, and what can be assumed to be common ground already. During the episode, learning (updating of assumptions) can happen at several levels, from specific to general, e.g. concerning: the specific object of the conversation the specific partner of the conversation the knowledge about x that a communication partner (in general, or of a certain category) can be assumed to have how others’ knowledge is relevant in communication. The two first points are specific learning. The two latter are what Bateson would call second order learning, that is, changes in the premisses under which one operates. Examples of different-level learning that are much closer to our three empirical excerpts can be found - and will if this goes into the chapter. FL03e DTM slut Experiments and points raised by, e.g. Krauss & Fussell, 1991